A demonstration of the performance and cost of artificial calf rearing systems was undertaken using 4-day-old Friesian bulls. Three commercial calf rearing systems (recommended by calf feed manufacturers) were compared with a cheaper variation which involved substituting a proportion of meal with pasture. The same calf milk replacer and meal was used in all four systems, so that this was a comparison of rearing systems, not of products. System 1 was a conventional twice-aday milk feeding regime for 6 weeks, with access to pasture from 4 weeks of age and restricted meal fed to 12 weeks. System 2 involved twicea- day milk feeding for 10 days, followed by once-a-day milk feeding for a further 50 days together with restricted meal and access to pasture from 4 weeks. System 3 involved once-a-day milk feeding for 5 weeks and ad libitum meal feeding before being allowed access to pasture at 10 weeks of age. System 4 was similar to System 3 but instead of ad libitum meal, calves were allowed access to pasture from 4 weeks and fed restricted meal. Feed input costs ranged from $83 per calf in System 4 to $127 per calf in Systems 2 and 3. At 12 weeks, average calf liveweights ranged from 98 kg for calves reared using System 1 to 110 kg for calves reared using System 3. There were significant differences in 12-week liveweight (P<0.05) between calves reared using System 1 and those reared using Systems 2 and 3. The liveweight penalty at 12 weeks was still apparent at slaughter at 26 months, but at an average liveweight of 593 kg these differences were no longer significant. This study demonstrated that calves can be successfully and cost-effectively reared using a low cost once-a-day milk feeding system for 5 weeks and by substituting grass for meal as part of their diet. Keywords: dairy beef, calves, calf rearing
Decisions about feeding livestock on pasture are complicated because of the large number of ingestive and digestive factors affecting pasture intake. As a result, pasture allowance, because of its simplicity, has evolved as a commonly used basis for feeding rules by scientists. This method has not been widely adopted by farmers, however, because it is not able to account for the effects of either pasture quality or herbage mass, both of which are frequently limiting to animal performance. A computer model, “QuickFeed”, was therefore constructed, in association with the West Waikato Feed Quality Study Group, to predict intake and performance of growing cattle and sheep on pasture. QuickFeed encapsulates a large amount of scientific information to give instant predictions of the outcomes of grazing duration and supplementation decisions on livestock performance, thereby assisting precise decision making for everyday grazing management. Keywords: allowance, computer model, decision support, herbage mass, livestock feeding, ME, pasture intake, pasture quality
Keywords: deer farming, pasture, pasture renewal, seed mixes, sheep farming, soil fertility History and description John has been farming for a total of 37 years and is third generation on the family farm. Previously, 223 ha used to provide work for up to three labour units but now the farm is 65 ha smaller and John and Jill run the property by themselves. This is very much a partnership in the true sense of the word with equal responsibilities and a good working relationship.
Pasture quality has a major effect on performance of grazing animals. Intake and nutritive value of pasture are major determinants of liveweight gain, milk production, health and reproductive performance of livestock. Digestibility and metabolisable energy concentration are the two most commonly used measures of nutritive value in New Zealand. In some situations protein, soluble carbohydrate, and mineral and trace element concentrations are also important. Fungal toxins, parasite larvae or other deleterious compounds lower pasture quality by compromising animal health. Potential intake of high nutritive value herbage is also greater because of rapid speed of passage through the animal. The major determinants of nutritive value are botanical and morphological composition, the environment in which the pasture is growing, and the regrowth period (i.e., herbage age). Legume leaf has higher nutritive value than grass leaf, leaf has higher quality than stem, and dead material has very low quality. Herbage grown at cooler times of the year has higher nutritive value than when grown in warmer conditions, and quality declines with age more slowly. Grass leaf declines in nutritive value as it ages, as does stem to an even greater extent. Soil moisture has only minor direct effects on nutritive value. Fertiliser application has direct effects such as increasing protein (by fertiliser nitrogen use) or trace element concentrations (if added to the fertiliser). It also has indirect effects through changing botanical and morphological composition. Keywords: digestibility, metabolisable energy, nutritive value, pasture quality
Investigations into the use of low rates of glyphosate as a pasture management tool in New Zealand are summarised. Rates of 250 ml/ha Roundup (360 g/l a.i. glyphosate) increased white clover and decreased dead material contents on sites throughout New Zealand. Results were variable depending on site, weather and application conditions. Variable responses in perennial ryegrass content were noted, with repeated annual applications helping to improve ryegrass content. Lamb growth rates increased by an average of 30 g/d or 20%. Californian thistle numbers were reduced by annual application of low rates of glyphosate. Thistles that were not killed remained vegetative and small. The use of low rates of glyphosate to control late-spring growth improved pasture nutritional characteristics. Pastures must have enough time to recover before the onset of drought to avoid grass death and weed invasion. Careful use of this technique can aid in the management of pastures in late spring to increase pasture quality in summer. More research is needed to define rate-by-environment interactions, effects on pasture growth and feed quality through small well-designed experiments. Keywords: botanical composition, Californian thistles, dead material, drought, glyphosate, lamb growth, pasture management, ryegrass, white clover
Keywords: animal welfare, dairy farming, deer farming, environment, genetic engineering, horticulture, organic farming, sheep farming I farm two properties with my wife and parents, one at Heddon Bush and the other a run block at Mossburn. Many people in the late 1980s were either exiting farming or expanding while land prices were low. We chose to expand as our area of 137 ha at Heddon Bush of good land was no longer an economic sheep unit, so we purchased 61 ha of hill country at Mossburn. Southland farming has been dominated by sheep farming in the past, and will be in the future. However, with the present decline in sheep and cropping incomes, and the rise in profitability of dairy farming, forestry, deer farming and the expansion in horticulture, we saw a progressive change in land use during the l990s. For example, in 1989 when travelling between farms, we would pass only one dairy farm, now we pass nine, many are on less-than-prime dairy land and they are relatively large. There is still only one cropping farm, but one deer farm has now got three fellows. However, there are still no ostrich farms. I believe this sort of dramatic change is likely to continue, providing a wider and more stable economic base to the Southland economy, and a less volatile income stream to the rural towns, contractor and service industries. Dairy farming’s profitability means it will still continue to be the winner in the land grab. The eventual demise of the Dairy Board monopoly will allow for greater foreign investment in the industry so the growth of dairying in Southland will continue, although it will be based more on returns from marketing and distribution. An added bonus is that dairy farming brings young families to the rural communities – good for our schools, clubs and communities. The dairy industry will become a comfortable, second largest industry in the future.
During the first 20 years of a Pinus radiata tree rotation, tree growth and pasture yield were assessed under a range of tree spacings at Invermay and Akatore, two coastal sites in Eastern Otago. Pasture yield in association with trees thinned to 100 stems per hectare (sph) was comparable to that from open pasture up to a tree age of 12 years. By the 19th year, however, pasture production declined to 63% of open pasture yield at Invermay and to 42% at Akatore. At 200 and 400 sph at Akatore, pasture yield was similar to that from open pasture at tree age 12 years but declined to 27% and 0% of open pasture yield respectively by year 20. At both Invermay and Akatore, the ryegrass and clover content of open pasture was relatively constant throughout the term of the trial. However, both the ryegrass and clover content of pasture beneath trees began to decline by tree age 12 years with a very rapid decline at Akatore in the number of pasture species at 200 sph by the 19th year. No pasture remained at 400 sph, after 19 years. Livestock carrying capacity with sheep on tree treatments at Invermay decreased from 100% of open pasture at year 6 to 60% by year 10. At Akatore, livestock carrying capacity averaged over the 20-year life of the trial was 4.1 stock units per hectare with a maximum of 8.1 stock units at a tree age of 8 years. Tree growth at both sites was similar, averaging between 1 and 1.1 m/year in height over 20 years, with trees at Invermay at 100 sph averaging 9% greater height and diameter growth than at Akatore. Increasing tree stocking from 100 to 200 to 400 sph at Akatore, resulted in increased tree height, but decreased diameter at breast height. A comparison of the East Otago trees with those in a similar trial at Tikitere (Rotorua) 900 km further north indicated that the southern trees were about 6 years later in their growth pattern by tree age 20 years. On both sites, soil pH tended to be lower in the presence of trees and was significantly lower than in open pasture by year 20. The results and comparisons with the Tikitere data suggest that, in an integrated agroforestry regime, there will be livestock grazing under the trees further into the tree rotation in Otago than in North Island sites. However, slower tree growth would result in a longer rotation time to harvest. Current recommendations to farmers are to plant trees on the less productive areas of the farm and adopt a tree stocking rate which fully utilises the site. Keywords: agroforestry, livestock, pasture, Pinus radiata, soil pH, tree stocking
Dairy beef enterprises are an intensification option for traditional sheep and beef businesses. Intensification largely refers to lifting soil fertility, the establishment of internal fencing and associated water supply, so that forage can be allocated with increasing precision. This precision enables higher stocking rates as a result of increasing pasture production, pasture quality, and intake leading to greater production of beef. Two beef finishing systems were compared; one a traditional system and the other a Technosystem. Using average parameter analyses, intensification was shown to pay at market returns of $2.50/kg of carcass weight under the production assumptions we used. The Technosystem showed significant returns on investment lifting the return on total capital invested in the farm business from 4.9% in a traditional system to 8%. We used two software programs; RANGEPACK HerdEcon and Stockpol™ to assess the risks a farmer would face when converting to a Technosystem. The two risks assessed were the variable climate of the East Coast and market prices. While these parameters vary considerably, the probability of doing better than the traditional system is high (84.7%). This declined rapidly if final stocking rates were less than 4 bulls per hectare with the probability of doing better reducing to 58% at 3.5 bulls per hectare. We also showed that the variability in cash surpluses is reduced by development with the coeffiecient of variation for the traditional system at 126% compared with the Technosystem of 95%. Variability does have a moderate effect on reducing overall profitability (13.4%), most of which (9.3%) is caused by markets rather than climate. Our conclusion is that beef intensification provides a reliable means of increasing net worth and cash surpluses. Keywords: beef intensification, bull finishing, climatic variability, financial analysis, price variability, risk, Technosystems
The Co (Vitamin B12), Se, Cu and I status of livestock on 12 Wendon Valley farms was determined from the trace element concentrations of pasture, blood and liver samples collected in spring and autumn and comparing them to accepted trace element reference ranges established from earlier New Zealand-wide trace element supplementation trials recording animal responses. Both marginal Co and Se deficiencies in lambs were found on two farms while another three farms were marginally Co deficient, one farm was very Co deficient and a further two farms were marginally Se deficient. Iodine deficiency was observed in new-born lambs from ewes wintered on swedes, whereas the Cu status of all sheep was adequate. No Co deficiency was found in cattle but Se deficiency was observed on four farms. A marked depletion of liver Cu stores and Cu deficiency was found in all cattle and deer during the late winter/ early spring. Growth responses to Vitamin B12 and Se supplementation in lambs, and the absence of goitre in new-born lambs to I supplementation in ewes were also observed. The established diagnostic protocols based on pasture, blood and liver samples were shown to be effective in determining the trace element status of grazing livestock in the Wendon Valley. Keywords: blood, cattle, copper, deer, iodine, liver, pasture, selenium, sheep, vitamin B12
Strategic de-stocking in winter is a common management practice on dairy farms in Southland, New Zealand, to protect the soil against pugging damage. This paper examines whether this practice can also be used to reduce nitrate leaching losses. Model analyses and field measurements were used to estimate nitrate leaching losses and pasture production under two strategic de-stocking regimes: 3 months off-farm or 5 months on a feed pad with effluent collected and applied back to the land. The model analyses, based on the results of a long-term farmlet study under conventional grazing and on information for an average New Zealand farm, suggested that the 3- or 5-month de-stocking could reduce nitrate leaching losses by about 20% or 35–50%, respectively compared to a conventional grazing system. Field measurements on the Taieri Plain in Otago support these findings, although the results to date are confounded by drought conditions during the 1998 and 1999 seasons. The average nitrate concentration of the drainage water of a 5-month strategic de-stocking treatment was about 60% lower than under conventional grazing. Pasture production of the 5-month strategic de-stocking regime with effluent return was estimated based on data for apparent N efficiency of excreta patches versus uniformlyspread farm dairy effluent N. The results suggested that a strategic de-stocking regime could increase pasture production by about 2 to 8%. A cost/ benefit analysis of the 5-month de-stocking system using a feed pad, comparing additional capital and operational costs with additional income from a 5% increase in DM production, show a positive return on capital for an average New Zealand dairy farm. This suggests that a strategic destocking system has good potential as a management tool to reduce nitrate leaching losses in nitrate sensitive areas whilst being economically viable, particularly on farms where an effluent application system or a feed pad are already in place. Keywords: dairying, feed pads, nitrate leaching, nitrogen efficiency, productivity, strategic de-stocking
Over the past 10 years, the Southland District Council has developed a proactive integrated approach to economic development. The approach has developed in response to identified needs and opportunities. The strategy recognises the importance of quality recreational opportunities, local services, amenities and infrastructure in the retention of population and attraction of new residents. These are seen as being complementary to initiatives targeted at producing increased employment opportunities. Regional initiatives are undertaken with other authorities or organisations where appropriate, and include: • Tourism Southland • Regional Identity – Branding • Crops for Southland • Topoclimate • Enterprise Connections. A close working relationship and accountability to local communities is maintained through elected members. These include the Mayor, Councillors and 12 Community Boards and 16 Community Development Area Committees. Concept development plans, prepared in conjunction with local communities, provide the basis for identifying local aspirations and priorities and linking these, where appropriate, to regional initiatives to ensure an integrated approach is achieved. A project-based approach and working with groups or organisations with a clear focus and expertise relevant to the project or issue, ensures effective use of resources and the achievement of positive outcomes. Keywords: crops, climate, economic development, forestry, soils, tourism
Keywords: beef, climate, dairy, forestry, land use, sheep, soils, Southland The 22nd and 40th Grassland Association conferences were held in Invercargill in 1960 and 1978, respectively. The 1978 conference was nearly cancelled as it just followed the massive flooding in Southland that October. In a farmer paper presented by Mr G.A. McDonald of Brydone, it is of interest that he was sowing lucerne on 5.5 ha of his property to protect from the summer dry. It makes interesting reading how the climate has changed since 1978. In a recent NIWA publication, this climate shift is described as the Interdecadel Pacific Oscillation. Previous shifts occurred in 1925, 1947 and 1977. Interestingly, NIWA is suggesting this 20–30 year oscillation may be due to switch again. The previous 1977 shift brought wetter and cloudier weather as more anticyclones occurred north of the country. It is interesting to speculate that many areas, previously perceived as dry, may once again become dry. This will have interesting repercussions because of the recent spread of dairying and the increasing land intensification.
and patterns of accumulated heat are important limits on pasture growth, especially over the period from late autumn to spring, and data on these factors are crucial for best land-use management in the southern farming community. The Topoclimate South Project is mapping soil and climate characteristics over 805 000 ha of Southland/South Otago using a network of 900 automated dataloggers. Temperature data for individual sites, and from local climate stations are being used to generate 30-year daily temperature and, thereafter, growing degree-day (GDD) records. Literature reviews show that several authors report considerable growth of temperate pasture species at about 5°C, so a base temperature of 4°C is used as a threshold for pasture growth and, thus, in GDD computations. Strong relationships are evident when pasture growth rates and GDDs are compared. For data recorded at Winton, Southland in the period 1950–1961, GDD patterns strongly reflect patterns of both clover and grass growth, accounting for 88% of the variability in mean patterns of clover growth and 75% of the variability in total pasture production. In practice, rainfall seasonality, nutrients, solar radiation, pasture management, plant pests and plant ecotype will also affect growth rates. To ensure that information gathered is also communicated, Topoclimate South is issuing soil and GDD maps to participating farmers. They have also established a service to provide detailed information and interpretation for end users, be they farmers, scientists, teachers, consultants or other service providers to the agricultural community. Keywords: growing degree-day, pasture growth, temperature threshold, topoclimate
This experiment compared the productivity of caucasian or white clover when established with five perennial grass species over 6 years in a dry lowland environment. Hexaploid ‘Endura’ caucasian clover or ‘Grasslands Demand’ white clover were sown in December 1994 with high endophyte ‘Yatsyn’ perennial ryegrass, ‘Grasslands Wana’ cocksfoot, ‘Grasslands Advance’ tall fescue, ‘Grasslands Gala’ grazing brome, or ‘Grasslands Maru’ phalaris into a deep, fertile silt loam. Initial establishment of clovers was poor with ryegrass and grazing brome. Some volunteer white clover established in all 10 treatments. After the first 14 months, no irrigation was applied over the following 4 years. Sheep grazed plots about six times each year. The legume cover in 15-month-old pastures was higher when sown with white clover (29%) than caucasian clover (21%) but dry conditions during 1997/1998 (60% of 680 mm mean annual rainfall) and 1998/1999 (66% of mean rainfall) decreased the percentage of legume in white clover pastures. In February 1998 and March 1999, legume contributed 37% and 21% of the dry matter (DM) in caucasian clover pastures, but only 4% and 1% in pastures sown with white clover. Rainfall during the sixth season (1999/2000) was more favourable (111% of mean rainfall). Total DM production from July 1999 to June 2000 was 10.0 t DM/ha from caucasian clover pastures and 8.7 t DM/ha from pastures sown with white clover. The mean proportion of legume in white clover pastures ranged from 9% when sown with ryegrass and phalaris to 1% with cocksfoot. In contrast, mean caucasian clover legume contents were similar across all grass treatments at 20%, but reached 46% with cocksfoot during summer. It was concluded that caucasian clover is more tolerant of summer moisture stress than white clover when in association with perennial grass species. Keywords: botanical composition, Bromus stamineus, Dactylis glomerata, legume content, Lolium perenne, moisture stress, pasture production, Phalaris aquatica, Schedonorus phoenix syn. Festuca arundinacea, Trifolium ambiguum, T. repens
The potential of caucasian clover to improve the legume content of lowland New Zealand pastures should result in enhanced animal performance. Liveweight gains from eight flocks of ewe lambs rotationally grazing irrigated ryegrass pasture with caucasian or white clover at two levels of soil fertility (Olsen P values 10 or 22) were compared during years 2 (1998/1999) and 3 (1999/2000) of an ongoing grazing experiment in a lowland environment. Clovers were sown in December 1996 and ryegrass in March 1997 into the pure clover swards. Lamb liveweight gains were similar in year 2 (1130 kg/ha/yr), but in year 3, gains were greater on pastures sown with caucasian than on those sown with white clover (1290 vs. 1110 kg/ ha/yr). Spring liveweight gains per head per day averaged 170 g/hd/d in year 2, and in year 3 were greater from caucasian than white clover pasture (180 vs. 160 g/hd/d). Caucasian clover pastures had more legume on offer than pastures sown with white clover in year 2 (26% vs. 17%) and year 3 (19% vs. 12%). In year 3, 39% of the total legume on offer in caucasian clover pastures was volunteer white clover. Soil fertility had little influence on results. Early years of this grazing experiment showed that caucasian clover can establish as well as white clover if sown alone, and that sowing caucasian clover can result in lowland pastures with an increased total legume content which may improve liveweight gains. Keywords: legume content, Lolium perenne, pasture production, sheep liveweight gain, Trifolium ambiguum, T. repens
Keywords: conversion, dairy farming, soil fertility, pasture, productivity, profitability Area 161 effective hectares on the dairy unit plus lease of 79 hectares History In 1991 we were farming the original 120 ha sheep property. Lloyd was working almost full time as a truck driver in order for us to support two families on the property. We basically had three options available to improve our net income and equity. They were to either get bigger, to diversify or to intensify further. Over the last 10 years we have done all three of these. The first and major hurdle though, was to change our farming system to dairy production.
This study measured total dry matter production and botanical composition of binary mixtures of cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), ryegrass (Lolium perenne) or tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), as a replacement series in proportions of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100 from June 1987 until May 1993. The binary mixtures were sown in March 1986 with white clover, on an occasionally drought affected Kaweku silt loam, with an average annual rainfall of 750 mm near Riversdale, in Southland. Mixtures with ryegrass were allowed a 6-month establishment period before ryegrass was overdrilled in early October 1986. Total yields of ryegrass/cocksfoot mixtures increased as ryegrass seeding rate increased. Clover yields were generally unaffected. Mixtures of cocksfoot/tall fescue produced more sown grass than either species sown alone. This lowered clover and other grass yields, resulting in no total dry matter yield improvement in mixtures compared to pure sowings. Tall fescue/ ryegrass mixtures were competitive in winter and spring with lower total yields than either species sown alone. This competition also lowered other grass yields. During summer and autumn the total production increased as the amount of ryegrass increased. Seed mixtures with two perennial temperate pasture grasses did not provide any extra pasture production in a cool temperate environment under infrequent hard grazing management. The best choice for the region would be the grass that provided the greatest dry matter yield. Other components such as clover may be reduced when mixing grasses. Keywords: cocksfoot, competition, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca arundinacea, Lolium perenne, mixtures, pasture yield, replacement series, ryegrass, tall fescue, white clover
encouraged by many regional councils, and the use of urea fertiliser on dairy farms has increased over recent years. A 3-year trial was started in September 1997 to investigate the effects of urea and dairy effluent applications on pastures, soils and groundwater quality. Twenty-one 0.25 ha paddocks received urea or dairy effluent at rates of 0, 100, 200, or 400 kg N/ha/yr, and were grazed by dairy cows. Increasing nitrogen application rates resulted in increased pasture production and ryegrass content, and nitrate leaching to ground water. Nitrate leaching was estimated to be 14, 18, 26 and 56 kg N/ha/yr for the 0, 100, 200 and 400 kg N/ha/yr application rates respectively. No differences in these responses were measured between urea and effluent when applied at the same rate of nitrogen. Application of dairy effluent resulted in increased average pasture potassium levels from 3.65%DM to 4.00%DM, which may have implications for animal health. Application of dairy effluent also decreased soil sulphur levels and increased soil magnesium status. Keywords: dairy effluent, groundwater, nitrate leaching, nitrogen, pasture, soil, urea
We examined the contribution of narrow-leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata) to pasture production and composition, as part of a larger experiment evaluating the role of biodiversity in North Island hill country pastures. Plantain was sown at rates between 0 and 13.5 kg/ha (equivalent) into small plots at two sites representative of North Island hill country pastures – Whatawhata and Ballantrae Research Centres. The sites encompassed variation in both slope and soil fertility. We measured the abundance and percent composition of plantain, and the total yield of the herbage growing on the plots in the spring and autumn of the year following establishment. The average abundance of plantain in both spring and autumn was greater on higher fertility plots but was not different between easy and steep slopes. Abundance was also related to sowing rate and the contribution of plantain to harvested DM yield was strongly related to abundance. There was some evidence that the percentage of plantain in spring pastures was positively related to total plot yield. Given that plantain occurs ubiquitously in most pastures, contributing 2–8% of pasture productivity, the data indicated a sowing rate of approximately 1 kg/ha was a minimum to significantly increase the abundance and contribution to productivity of this species. Keywords: biodiversity, hill country, pasture, plaintain
The financial benefit of improving depleted pastures in the New Zealand high country is considered. Two models were developed based on Earnscleugh Station in Central Otago using RANGEPACK HerdEcon with data gathered from a large-scale pasture development trial. One model developed 721 ha of extra pastures using the costs and production gains expected while the other did not undertake development. The cash surplus accumulated after taxation was 4.7% higher after 10 years if no development occurred while the Net worth was 1% better if nothing was done. Reducing developed costs to $50/ha did not achieve a payback within 10 years whereas a marginal increase in stock numbers of 2.25 stock units achieved this. It was estimated that some of the landforms on Earnscleugh Station’s pasture development trial did achieve this level of productivity. The overall poor performance of the development simulations was concluded to be a result of developing marginal landforms, which although cheap to develop make the scenario unprofitable. Keywords: development, financial analysis, fine wool, merino, pasture improvement, price variability
Four groups of sheep and beef farmers located throughout New Zealand were asked questions relating to pasture quality management. Answers were grouped into themes. In answer to the question “what do you do to manage pasture quality”, themes identified were manipulation of wholefarm feed demand throughout the year to match feed supply; use of specific grazing strategies; topping and mowing; cropping and regrassing; fertiliser application; weed and pest control; conservation and supplementation; monitoring, predicting and planning; irrigation, drainage and aeration; and internal parasite control. In answer to the question “what is pasture quality”, themes identified were animal performance; chemical composition of the herbage; botanical and morphological composition of the herbage; factors affecting intake and utilisation; and anti-quality factors. Most management practices were designed to control the spring surplus or provide alternative high quality feed through cropping or regrassing. Keywords: current practices, farmers, management, pasture quality, sheep and beef
A cost benefit analysis of pasture renewal for sheep and deer systems is presented for cultivatable land in Otago and Southland. Pasture renewal was costed at between $400/ha (direct drilling) and $550/ha (full cultivation). The benefits from new pastures were assumed to peak at between 2 and 4 years after sowing and to last for 10 years. Sheep farm productivity was improved by up to 132%, and deer production by 60% with these models. The cost benefit analyses showed that net income increased by $409/ha and $184/ha when sowing improved ryegrass pastures for sheep and deer systems, respectively. The inclusion of chicory increased the advantage to $503/ha and $304/ha for sheep and deer systems, respectively. Increasing annual pasture renewal rate from 5% to 10%, 15% and 20% on a sheep and beef property improved net returns per hectare by $191/ha, $332/ha, $370/ ha and $409/ha respectively. In conclusion, when actively managed by farmers, pasture renewal benefits gained through improved seasonality of supply and increased pasture quality are highly profitable when realised through higher stocking rates and per head performance. Keywords: cost:benefit, deer, modelling, pasture renewal, profitability, sheep
White clover is often listed as one of the factors contributing to profitable pastoral farming in New Zealand. The positive aspects of white clover have been presented in a balanced manner in publications by scientists, environmentalists and farmers able to exploit these positive aspects. Increasingly, pastures contain sub-optimal levels of clover, as a result of pasture management that is detrimental to clover, including the increasing use of fertiliser nitrogen. In some regions of New Zealand, farmers can legitimately point to pests such as the clover root weevil and factors such as the ryegrass endophyte as causing restrictions in clover production, but this is less the case in Southland. Environmental conditions in Southland are well suited for ryegrass–white clover pastures. Wellmanaged ryegrass–white clover pastures containing the best regional cultivars can achieve high financial returns. A number of trials at the Gore Research Station are reviewed; they demonstrated that on mixed ryegrass–white clover swards farmers can produce nearly 25% more dry matter, 40% more carcass weight and 25% more wool than on pastures with ryegrass alone receiving 270 kg N/ha/year. The yield advantage would have been greater still if they were compared with typical Southland pastures. Not only was 180 kg more carcass and 17 kg more wool produced per hectare on mixed swards, but nitrogen fixation by clover produced more than $300 worth of nitrogen per hectare. The yield advantage achievable from the ryegrass–white clover swards requires specific pasture management, particularly in spring– summer and the use of adapted white clover cultivars. Keywords: cultivars, Lolium perenne, nitrogen, pasture production, perennial ryegrass, set stocking, Trifolium repens, white clover, wool
A study was undertaken to evaluate the relative importance of milk and pasture to lamb growth during lactation under a high performance lamb production system. A total of 285 East Friesian x Romney (EFxR), Finn x Romney (FxR) and Romney (R) maiden 2-tooth ewes lambed following insemination with semen from six high growth rate Poll Dorset and composite rams. Mean lambing date was 16 July 1998. Breed groups were run together in either single or twin mobs and fed at high levels of nutrition (pasture covers were maintained at 1400 kg DM/ha or greater throughout lactation). Average lamb growth rates from birth to 15 weeks of age were 343 g/d and 292 g/d for single and twin lambs, respectively. Single and twin lambs reared by EFxR ewes grew significantly faster than lambs reared by the other ewe breeds. Ewes were milked at 3-weekly intervals using oxytocin with EFxR ewes producing significantly more milk than the other breeds throughout lactation. Milk composition varied significantly between ewe breeds with FxR ewes producing significantly higher fat % and total milk solids (P<0.001) than the other breeds. Reduced overall milk solids from EFxR ewes lowered a 30% advantage in milk volume to approximately 20% in terms of total milk energy production. Although positive, the correlation between milk production and lamb liveweight was generally poor, indicating that non-milk factors had an additional influence on lamb liveweight gain. The relative importance of milk to lamb growth was examined by calculating theoretical metabolisable energy (ME) requirements for single and twin lambs and comparing them with the ME supplied in the milk produced by the ewes. Assuming that lambs harvest all of the milk produced by the ewes, it was found that even in an optimum grazing situation, twin lambs needed to acquire over a third of their energy requirements from pasture by the time they were 6 weeks of age. At this age, lambs were unlikely to have a fully developed rumen and the opportunity for the lamb to select high quality, highly digestible pasture components would be critical for maximum growth. Therefore, in a situation where feed is limiting, competition between ewes and lambs for highly quality feed is likely to restrict lamb growth rate. This is likely to occur even at peak lactation with well fed, high milk producing ewes. Keywords: East Friesian, ewe milk production, Finn, lamb growth rates, Romney, 2-tooth
increasing farm production is the low pasture production in early spring and late autumn. In order to accurately predict the effect of nitrogen (N) fertiliser on production at these times, four smallplot mowing trials looking at pasture responses to N fertiliser were established on two dairy farms and one sheep farm in Southland and one sheep farm in Central Otago in August 1998. Monthly applications of 50 kg N/ha as urea were applied from August to May. Pasture production was measured monthly using a pasture probe in Southland and by cutting and drying the herbage in Central Otago. Results show that the August– September applications of N gave pasture responses of 1.5–9 kg DM/kg N in 1998 and 6–23 kg DM/kg N in 1999. The October–November N applications gave responses of 4–20 kg DM/kg N in 1998 and 4–15 kg DM/kg N in 1999. The February–March applications of N produced responses of 6–14 kg DM/kg N in 1999 and 3.2–20 kg DM/kg N in 2000. The response to August-applied N was similar in the second month after application to the first month. For the March application, most of the response occurred in the first 30 days following application, although small responses were measured up to 90 days after application at some sites. N applied in May had a small carryover effect on spring (September) pasture production, but the August application resulted in the greatest overall production increase in September. This study showed that a single application of N in August or March can result in large pasture production increases under mowing with clippings removed, without depressing clover growth. Keywords: autumn, nitrogen fertiliser, nitrogen response, pasture production, spring
In response to local concerns about the expanding Southland dairy herd, a 4-year study was initiated in 1995 with the primary objective of quantifying nitrate-N losses to waterways from intensively grazed cattle pastures. Treatments were annual N fertiliser inputs of 0, 100, 200 or 400 kg N/ha. Stocking rate was set according to the pasture production on each of these four treatments, and over the 4 years of study ranged between the equivalent of 2.0 cows/ha for the 0N treatment, to 3.0 cows/ha for the treatment receiving 400 kg N/ ha/year. Mean annual losses of nitrate-N in drainage were 30, 34, 46 and 56 kg N/ha for the 0, 100, 200 and 400 kg N/ha/year treatments, respectively. Corresponding mean nitrate-N concentrations in drainage waters were 8.3, 9.2, 12.5 and 15.4 mg/ l, respectively. Very little direct leaching of fertiliser N was observed, even for drainage events in early spring, shortly after urea fertiliser application. The increased nitrate-N losses at higher rates of N fertiliser addition were instead owing to the indirect effect of increasing returns of urine and dung N to pasture. In Years 2 and 3, leaching losses of Ca, Mg, K, Na and sulphate-S averaged 61, 9, 11, 28 and 17 kg/ha/year, respectively, in the 0N fertiliser treatment. Increasing fertiliser N inputs significantly increased calcium and, to a lesser extent, potassium leaching losses but had no effect on losses of other plant nutrients. Surface runoff losses of Total-P, nitrate-N and ammonium- N were less than 0.5 kg/ha/year. For this well-drained Fleming soil, surface runoff was a relatively minor contributor of N to surface water, even for plots receiving high rates of fertiliser N and at a stocking rate of 3.0 cows/ha. Extrapolating these results to a ‘typical’ dairy pasture in Eastern Southland would suggest that the safe upper limit for annual fertiliser N additions to this site to achieve nitrate in drainage water below the drinking water standard is approximately 170 kg N/ha. Although losses of Ca in drainage were large, returns of this nutrient in maintenance applications of superphosphate-based products and lime should ensure Ca deficiencies are avoided in Southland dairy pastures. Keywords: cation-anion balances, dairy, N fertiliser, nitrate leaching, surface runoff, Southland
On-farm cobalt/vitamin B12 supplementation trials were carried out with 3-month-old weaned lambs (N = 50) on six southern South Island properties that were considered to be deficient or marginal for cobalt over the years 1996–1999. No significant liveweight responses of the lambs were recorded over a 3-month period on any of the farms in any year. When lambs were raised on cobalt-treated pasture and were injected with vitamin B12 or had rumen cobalt pellets administered, liver and serum vitamin B12 concentrations increased. Plot trials showed two light sprays of cobalt sulphate at 60 g/ ha, 2 months apart over summer, was an effective means of maintaining herbage concentrations in the desirable range, i.e., >0.1 mg Co/kg DM. Monitoring of herbage cobalt and tissue vitamin B12 concentrations of animals was essential to indicate when lambs may need cobalt or vitamin B12 supplementation. Current reference values over-estimated the probability of responses in this set of experiments. Keywords: Cobalt, cobalt herbage level, lamb growth, vitamin B12
Two experiments were conducted to describe the damage and regrowth of pasture after a single, severe cattle treading event during winter. One experiment was conducted on hill country at AgResearch’s Ballantrae Hill Country Research Station, and the other on the No. 4 Dairy Unit at Massey University. Herbage growth rate, canopy cover, tiller density and leaf area index were studied and compared in grazed, cattle-trodden and untrodden (control) pastures. At Ballantrae, the control treatment was sheep-grazed pasture, and at Massey University, it was cattle-grazed, but untrodden pasture under the electric fence. A single cattle treading event on winter-wet soils reduced hill pasture growth rates in spring to 11 kg DM/ha/day compared to 18 kg DM/ha/day in undamaged pasture on slopes, and to 21 kg DM/ ha/day compared to 39 kg DM/ha/day on tracks. Spring dairy pasture growth rate to 7 weeks after treading was 33 kg DM/ha/day compared to 51 kg DM/ha/day in undamaged pasture. Damage reduced canopy cover to 60% on hill pasture tracks and to 43% in dairy pasture, compared to covers of 95% and 90% in undamaged pastures, respectively. It was concluded that the low spring herbage growth rate following a single, severe winter treading of pasture on wet soil was due mainly to significantly reduced tiller numbers, and a decrease in leaf area index and canopy cover. Treading had no significant effect on the size of individual tillers. Keywords: cattle treading, hill country, pasture, pugging
This paper reviews current research within AgResearch to reduce the impact of plant-feeding nematodes. Plant-feeding nematodes reduce pasture production by around 15% annually, mainly through their effect on white clover. Nematicide application increases clover yields in pasture by an average 40% and N-fixation levels by over 50%. The problem occurs nationally. When pasture nematode burdens are reduced in established or newly sown ryegrass–white clover pasture, white clover can generally assume dominance during periods of active plant growth. The impact of clover nematodes in reducing nitrogen inputs and forage quality is estimated to exceed $1 billion annually in lost production potential. A gain of 1% in clover performance applied nationally is estimated to be worth up to $48 million. The research programme on pasture nematodes conducted within AgResearch has included evaluation of management practices that may reduce nematode impacts, selection of white clover seedlines for resistance or tolerance to nematodes, and identification of agents for biological control of nematodes within New Zealand pastures. Keywords: clover nematodes, Heterodera trifolii, impacts, Meloidogyne trifoliophila, M. hapla, Pratylenchus spp., Trifolium repens
Uptake of cobalt (Co) and copper (Cu) by ryegrass– white clover based pasture was measured from December 1999 to March 2000 at Woodlands Research Station in Southland. Treatments were control, cobalt sulphate (CoSO4) at 120 and 240 g/ha initially and 60 g/ha monthly, and copper sulphate (CuSO4) at 5 and 10 kg/ha initially and 1.25 kg/ha monthly, applied in either solid or liquid forms. At 120 g CoSO4/ha applied as solid and liquid, pasture Co content was significantly (P<0.05) elevated above control for up to 3 weeks after application. CoSO4 applied initially at 240 g/ha in both forms significantly increased pasture Co above control for 6–7 weeks after application. For the December monthly application, neither solid or liquid application of 60 g CoSO4/ ha significantly increased pasture Co from 2 weeks after application. Later applications resulted in both forms of CoSO4 significantly increasing pasture Co above control for up to 3 weeks after application. Pasture Co was significantly higher from liquid compared to solid application in February and March. When applied in one application, 5 kg solid CuSO4/ha significantly increased pasture copper (Cu) content above control for 3 weeks, 5 kg liquid CuSO4/ha had an effect for 4 weeks, 10 kg solid CuSO4/ha for 5 weeks, and 10 kg liquid CuSO4/ha for 13 weeks. Monthly applications of 1.25 kg CuSO4/ha significantly increased pasture Cu above control for 1–2 weeks after application in all months. There was a significant increase in pasture Cu from liquid compared with solid application in February and March. The short duration of effect of the high rates of CoSO4 and CuSO4 suggest that, if required, they should be applied at a time when the animal can build up stores of Co and Cu in the liver before a critical period. In summer/autumn, when rainfall is lower, CoSO4 and CuSO4 if required, should be applied as liquid, 1 week before the pasture is grazed. These recommendations assume that the increase in pasture uptake of Co and Cu would result in greater Co and Cu availability to the animal. Keywords: CoSO4, CuSO4, pasture, Co content, Cu content
Supplementation of salt to dairy cows on a pumice soil at Waikite, Rotorua gave a 12.8% increase in milk yield with unaltered composition. The response was immediate and occurred over a 3- month trial period. The result was obtained on ryegrass/clover pastures averaging 0.05% Na whereas the recommended concentration for dairy cows is 0.12% Na. Two methods of diagnosing Na deficiency were examined in the trial namely saliva Na: K ratios and pasture Na content. In the case of the former, practical sampling problems and a lack of a production response calibration indicates that of the two methods, pasture analysis will probably be the most simple and reliable means of diagnosing deficiency. Salt supplementation in a Na-deficient situation is likely to be economically very viable. If the 12.8% milk production response in the current trial was extended to the full lactation period this would give an additional income of $129/cow (at $3.50/kg milk solids) at a cost of $2.84/cow increased. Sodium deficiency is likely to become more prevalent in the future as outputs of Na on farms exceed inputs and potassium fertiliser continues to be applied at rates in excess of maintenance. Further work is required to determine critical Na levels for production responses, the best methods of supplementation, the rates of application required and how well salt dissolves and mixes with other drenches. Keywords: dairy cows, milk yield, salt supplementation, sodium response
Slow-establishing, high quality, pasture species are frequently added to standard ryegrass–white clover seed mixtures in an effort to improve pasture nutritive value. However, intense competition during establishment can suppress these species. Four alternative sowing strategies (Treatment 1: temporal separation of species (clovers sown in November 1998 before ryegrass direct-drilled at 10 kg/ha in March 1999); Treatment 2: substitution of ryegrass with slower-establishing timothy; Treatments 3 and 4: physical separation (alternate drill rows) of slower-establishing species from lower than average ryegrass seeding rates (3.5 kg/ ha or 8 kg/ha)) were used on a commercial North Otago dairy farm. Total dry matter (DM) production after 16 months was greater from pastures initially sown with ryegrass (19.1 t DM/ ha) (Treatments 3 and 4) than when ryegrass sowing was delayed or substituted with timothy (15.2 t DM/ha) (Treatments 1 and 2). The percentage of red plus white clover was similar in all pastures at 16 months of age and averaged 54%, compared with less than 1% for caucasian clover. Timothy sown without ryegrass contributed 42% of production (Treatment 2), compared with 7% when sown with ryegrass (Treatments 3 and 4). Ryegrass composition was similar (43%) regardless of sowing rate (Treatments 3 and 4) and sowing date (Treatment 1). This on-farm study demonstrated successful establishment of red and white clover in all four treatments but timothy and caucasian clover were suppressed by the inclusion of low rates of ryegrass. Keywords: botanical composition, competition, dry matter production, Lolium perenne, Phleum pratense, seeding rates, Trifolium ambiguum, T. pratense, T. repens
Five plant species were established using two direct drilling techniques in a trial initiated in spring 1998 at a dryland site on Earnscleugh Station in Central Otago. The plant species were: wheatgrass (Thinopyron intermedium), tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum elatius), birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), hairy dorycnium (Dorycnium hirsutum) and bluebush (Kochia prostrata). These were established with the New Zealand Agricultural Engineering Institute/AgResearch strip-seeder drill and a conventional hoe-coulter drill. Establishment and subsequent growth during the first two growing seasons are described, and evaluation of this trial will be ongoing. The 1998/99 summer developed into one of the driest and windiest seasons experienced in Otago, resulting from prevailing La Niña Southern Oscillation weather patterns. The extreme drought culminated in two significant grassland fires near Alexandra in late February. Heat and drought during summer adversely affected seedling numbers as the season advanced. However, survival of plant species established with the strip-seeder drill was significantly better than that from the hoe-coulter drill. By autumn 1999, live seedling numbers were heavily reduced in all treatments (-50% and -68% for strip-seeder and hoe-coulter drills, respectively) but recovery was satisfactory during early winter. Wheatgrass, hairy dorycnium and tall oat grass in particular persisted well during the relatively mild winter. Despite a dry spring, by October 1999 these species had achieved ground coverage of 38%, 23% and 33% respectively from the strip-seeder drill (cf. 7%, 7% and 6% from the hoe-coulter drill), thus the vegetation was providing significant and earlier protection for fragile soil resources in a harsh environment. These results are preliminary but we conclude from them that the strip-seeder technique can provide superior plant establishment on dryland sites even during adverse drought conditions. Commercial development of this technology, including simplification of the system, is recommended. Keywords: birdsfoot trefoil, bluebush, dryland drilling, hairy dorycnium, hoe-coulter, strip-seeder, tall oat grass, wheatgrass
The annual legume, subterranean clover, is adapted to permanent pastures in the summer drought-prone areas of eastern New Zealand. Dry summers over the last decade in Canterbury have renewed the interest from farmers in the use of sub clover. As the previously used cultivars Mt Barker and Tallarook are no longer available, a trial was established at AgResearch Templeton to evaluate a new series of cultivars and breeding lines from Australia together with recent New Zealand selections. The lines were sown in rows in May 1993 and assessed for seed set, autumn seedling regeneration and spring growth under sheep grazing for 4 years. The new Australian cultivars had improved seed set and consistently better seedling regeneration and herbage yield compared with older cultivars. The late-flowering, small-leaved and densely branched types were best adapted to the Canterbury environment. The late-maturity cultivars Denmark and Leura, selected from Sardinian germplasm, re-established 50% more seedlings and produced 25% greater late winter/ spring growth than Mt Barker and Tallarook in the third year. The New Zealand selection Ak 948 had similar performance to Denmark and Leura but the remaining selections were mediocre by the fourth year. The Sardinian ecotype breeding material appeared well-adapted to Canterbury conditions and future cultivars based on this material may be most suitable. Further trials are required in harsher sites to confirm these cultivar recommendations. Keywords: Australian cultivars, dry regions, herbage yield, seedling regeneration, subterranean clover, Trifolium subterraneum
The effect of two contrasting forage supply options on forage and sheep production was evaluated on irrigated farmlet systems at Winchmore, mid Canterbury, over 3 years. One system was based on perennial ryegrass pastures (Control), and the other on hybrid ryegrass, tall fescue, and chicory pastures (Improved). Pasture growth rates were similar for all pasture types, however, pasture cover was on occasion, higher on the Control than Improved systems ensuring this system was self-sufficient in feed while the Improved system had a deficit averaging 714 kgDM/ha/yr. Swards on both systems contained similar proportions of legume but the Improved system contained less grass and more chicory before lamb grazing. Despite the apparent improvement in feed quality of the Improved system, its lamb performance was greater than that from the Control system for the first year only, when swards were newly established and contained greater proportions of chicory and legume. Although pasture production was similar between years there was considerable variation in lamb growth rates. This was most pronounced in the Improved system where pre-weaning rates averaged 266 and 216 g/d in years 1 and 3 respectively, and post-weaning rates 190 and 108 in years 1 and 2 respectively. The post-weaning variation appeared to coincide with fluctuations in clover and to an even greater extent, the chicory content of swards, the proportion of which declined as seasons progressed and pastures aged. The Improved system gave financial returns from lamb that were $49/ha higher than the Control in year 1 but offered no advantage in subsequent years. Compared to the Control, the Improved system had the added costs of more frequent pasture renewal and was further disadvantaged by a feed deficit necessitating buying-in supplies. Improvements anticipated to accrue from the inclusion of higher quality swards in an irrigated animal production system, were not supported by findings from this study. Keywords: irrigation, lamb production, pasture production, pasture quality, pasture species
The effect of weaning weight on the subsequent growth rate of lambs was estimated from data collected at Winchmore Research Station. The lamb weight data were collected over a 3-year period involving dryland and irrigated farmlets with two contrasting forage systems. Lambs were weighed at 2-weekly intervals with the weights for the periods immediately pre- and post-weaning being used for the comparisons in this study. Results overall indicated that, following adjustments for pasture type, gender, birth and rearing rank, heavier lambs at weaning had faster growth rates post-weaning than lighter lambs. However, lighter lambs suffered a lower drop in growth rate (defined as growth rate before weaning minus growth rate post-weaning) than heavier lambs. This was universal across both pasture types, both genders and all combinations of birth and rearing ranks. Possible explanations are that the lighter lambs at weaning were receiving less milk from their mothers or that they were under some mob pressure and had limited access to quality pastures. In some cases, the lighter lambs even increased their growth rates post-weaning when compared to pre-weaning. It is suggested that weaning light lambs is an option for farmers, particularly when feed supply is limiting or when dry stock are required to clean up poor quality pastures and set up high quality feed for young stock. Keywords: dryland, irrigated, lamb growth, lamb weaning, pasture quality, weaning weights
benefits of altering the quality and seasonality of pasture supply in sheep farming enterprises. Three representative regions in New Zealand were studied; winter-cold and summer-wet (e.g., Southland, Otago and Central North Island); winter-cold, summer-dry (e.g., South Island East Coast); and winter-warm, summer-dry (e.g., North Island East Coast). Two different lamb-finishing enterprises were also analysed within each region; a conventional system where the lamb supply pattern was aligned with feed availability, and a supply contract system where more lambs were supplied for processing outside the normal season. Improving the seasonality of feed supply increased gross margins by $26 to $126 per hectare depending on the region. The greatest gains from improved seasonality occurred in the winter-cold scenarios. Improving forage quality had a more positive impact than improved seasonality changes with gross margins increasing by $53 to $148 per hectare depending on region. Overall the impact of the forage supply and forage quality changes was similar for the two lamb-finishing systems. Keywords: lamb-finishing, pasture production, pasture quality, systems analysis
Timothy is an important pasture species in many cool-temperate regions of the world, particularly those with cold winters and moist summers. In New Zealand, this perennial grass has been used traditionally for mixed pasture in cool moist areas of the southern South Island. It is valued for hay as it retains good feed quality even when seedheads are present. Timothy’s flowering and tillering response is different from perennial ryegrass, leading to a high tiller turnover in summer and making it vulnerable to mismanagement, pests and drought. Timothy’s inherent digestibility and quality is no greater than perennial ryegrass but because of its late flowering nature, its quality is retained longer in pastures. This, combined with its lack of endophyte and higher clover content, commonly allows a greater animal performance from pastures. This paper reviews timothy’s features and onfarm performance, explains how its features produce its characteristic performance, and considers its potential in current New Zealand grazing systems in different regions. Keywords: grazing, pasture, seeds mixtures, timothy
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