The New Zealand deer industry is projected to grow strongly over the next decade with venison and velvet production forecast by some models to increase by 16740 tonnes (67%) and 300 tonnes (60%), respectively, in the next four years alone. Commensurate growth in high paying markets is required to prevent these raw materials becoming commodities with associated downward pressure on prices achieved by the industry. Furthermore, growth in supply will generate increasing volumes of co-products, for which market opportunities need to be developed. The deer industry is thus following the classical technology S curve and requires further innovation to maintain wealth for its participants. The industry has worked with research providers to develop a R&D strategy to counter commodification, by supporting the expansion of the industry into year-round chilled venison products into niche markets and developing new enterprises from deer co-products. DEEResearch was formed to provide research direction and increase effective industry investment into R&D through better coordination of research and a combination of funding directly from the industry and additional funds leveraged from other sources. As a relatively small industry, the deer industry faces the challenge of assembling the critical mass and investment necessary to support expansion. Crown funding is critical to overcoming these constraints and the industry’s progressive and united vision is important in securing this. Keywords: Deer industry, research coordination, strategy
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(75 KB)The role of diet selection by farmed deer in their nutrient intake and species selection, and the consequences for the management of forages, is considered. In common with sheep and cattle, sward surface height (SSH) is the most influential sward physical factor on the ability of deer to meet their daily nutrient demand from grazed pasture, and a SSH of 10cm is required for maximum intake and performance. Deer discriminate among pasture species, generally preferring legumes and herbs to grasses. The grass dominance and low proportion of clover in typical permanent pasture grazed by deer reflects their selection for clover and avoidance of grass. This dominance of grass and the difficulty deer face in selecting for alternative species that are present only in a low proportion may constrain intake even when sward height is not limiting. Summer-growing forage species such as red clover (Trif olium pratense), white clover (Tri folium repens), birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) and chicory (Cichorium intybus) have high nutritive value, and result in high liveweight gains by deer when provided as specialist swards at critical feeding times. Recent studies indicate that ruminants prefer to eat mixed diets, and management systems that enable mixed grass-clover pastures with a high proportion of legume to be sustained under selective grazing by deer would provide high nutritive value and maintain a balance between winter and summer in the seasonal distribution of pasture dry matter production. Keywords: Cervidae, deer, diet selection, forage, grazing behaviour, nutrient intake, preference
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(64 KB)The role of diet selection by farmed deer in their nutrient intake and species selection, and the consequences for the management of forages, is considered. In common with sheep and cattle, sward surface height (SSH) is the most influential sward physical factor on the ability of deer to meet their daily nutrient demand from grazed pasture, and a SSH of 10cm is required for maximum intake and performance. Deer discriminate among pasture species, generally preferring legumes and herbs to grasses. The grass dominance and low proportion of clover in typical permanent pasture grazed by deer reflects their selection for clover and avoidance of grass. This dominance of grass and the difficulty deer face in selecting for alternative species that are present only in a low proportion may constrain intake even when sward height is not limiting. Summer-growing forage species such as red clover (Trif olium pratense), white clover (Tri folium repens), birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) and chicory (Cichorium intybus) have high nutritive value, and result in high liveweight gains by deer when provided as specialist swards at critical feeding times. Recent studies indicate that ruminants prefer to eat mixed diets, and management systems that enable mixed grass-clover pastures with a high proportion of legume to be sustained under selective grazing by deer would provide high nutritive value and maintain a balance between winter and summer in the seasonal distribution of pasture dry matter production. Keywords: Cervidae, deer, diet selection, forage, grazing behaviour, nutrient intake, preference
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(64 KB)Red deer are a species that exhibit marked seasonal cycles in reproduction and growth in response to changes in day length. Changes in food intake throughout the year are primarily a function of the changing drive to grow within the animal in response to changing photoperiod, but may be modified by other factors including the energy content and type of diet, climate, and the physiological state and age of the animal. Feed quality also changes with season and red deer change their response to quality between seasons. This may be based on diet selection or on changes in digestive and metabolic processes. Keywords: feed quality, red deer, seasonality
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(83 KB)Two experiments tested the effects of dif ferent winter diets on intake and digestion of pasture by rising 1-yearold red deer returned to pasture with minimal dietary management during early spring. During May 1998 forty calves were randomly allocated to five winter feeding treatments including pasture only, silage only, 40% concentrate plus silage, 60% concentrate plus silage, and 90% concentrate plus silage. Forage intakes in the five days before and after turnout on 28th September 1998 were higher in weaners fed pasture than those fed winter diets (P<0.05). Of the supplemented weaners the postturnout intake was highest from weaners fed 60% concentrate plus silage and lowest from weaners fed silage only (P<0.05). Pasture digestibility was higher in deer previously fed pasture than those fed silage and concentrate diets in winter (78% and 73% respectively, P<0.05). During May 1999 calves were randomly allocated to three winter feeding treatments including swedes only (Brassica napus var. Doon Major), silage only, and 60% concentrate plus silage. The deer were supplemented with ad libitum lucerne hay during the turnout period. During the first week, after turnout on 6th September 1999, intake was low averaging 1 kg DM/ head/d. Weaners fed swedes only during winter had significantly lower intakes that the other groups (P<0.05). During the second week the intakes increased to be greatest in the weaners fed swedes, and those fed the silage plus concentrate diet compared to the silage only diet (1.9 and 1.8 kg compared to 1.58 kg DM/head/ d respectively, P<0.05). The diet consisted of between 38 and 61% lucerne hay over the two week period. The digestibility of the diet was 62.8% in the first week and 75.2% in the second week. Live weight gain over the two week period ranged between 1.1 and 1.75 kg. The use of lucerne hay improved the overall result from the previous year. These results indica te that effects of winter diet during the transition period between winter and spring diets were small, though greater on poorer quality winter diets. Keywords: Cervus elaphus, diet change, digestibility, food intake, live weight gain, red deer
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(41 KB)The New Zealand deer industry is growing rapidly and the development of sustainable management practices for deer farming is becoming increasingly important. The main environmental issues facing the deer industry are the eff ects on soil and water quality, exacerba ted by the behaviour responses of deer to confinement (in particular fence pacing and wallowing). In addition, the projected increase in greenhouse gas emissions from deer farming from about 1.5% of the total emissions in 1990 to an estimated 7% in 2010 is of particular concern if the Kyoto Protocol is ratified. Although the potential effects of deer farming on the environment are well recognised, very little experimental work has qualified the extent of these impacts. The future of intensive deer farming in New Zealand will not only depend on the successful development of sustainable management practices, but also on the implementation and adoption of these practices, which will be influenced by the balance between the costs and the benefits to the New Zealand deer farmer. The development and adoption of sustainable management practices for deer farming requires quantification of rates of sediment, nutrient and faecal contaminant movement to waterways, the impact of soil compaction and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as an assessment of the economic implications. Keywords: deer farming, greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient losses, sediment losses, soil compaction, soil erosion, water quality
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(68 KB)Despite tough current market conditions, a recent market visit to Europe attending the SIAL food trade show and meeting with government authorities and customers in France, Holland and Germany instilled me with confidence for the future of the deer industry. The market is the primary driver of profitability at the farm gate and so needs to be considered when developing nutrition and management strategies for the future. The big picture needs to be kept in mind as the future is not just about nutrition for healthy and productive animals. Understanding both nutrition and management provides the groundwork for a healthy, productive and sustainable industry which meets our consumers’ needs.
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(51 KB)Reproduction incurs a high energetic cost and failure to meet nutritional needs results in reproductive failure. In red deer hinds, the interaction between nutrition, summer lactation and subsequent ovulation/conception is of particular interest for farmed deer production in NZ due to climatic constraints to summer pasture production in many areas. However, few studies have focussed on the potential perturbing effects of poor nutrition on lactational outputs and potential flow-on effects on ovulation/conception. As lacta tion in red deer naturally persists well beyond the autumn mating period, lactational anoestrus (through hormonal feedback mechanisms) is not a normal feature of the species reproduction. However, lactation is of high nutritional cost to the hind and can potentially exert considerable influence on the incidence and timing of conception via changes in hind liveweight, lipid depots and general body condition. Supporting evidence for this hypothesis is derived from studies of wild red deer within habitats marginal to species survival (e.g. Isle of Rhum, Scotland), where climatic variables greatly influence annual reproductive success of hinds. Under such conditions, even the differences in maternal investment (via lactation) required to raise male and female calves have been demonstrated to influence the subsequent success and timing of conceptions. Studies of farmed red deer in Scotland also demonstrated that hinds on different levels of pasture nutrition during lactation exhibited significant differences in conception date, with earlier conceptions favouring hinds on higher levels of nutrition. There is a growing body of evidence from monitoring of farmed red deer in New Zealand that the interaction between lactation and hind body condition score (BCS)/ liveweight influences subsequent conception rate and date. Recent studies on pre-rut versus post-rut calf weaning practices demonstrated effects of lactation on hind BCS and liveweight, calf growth rates and hind conception dates. These studies highlight the need to better understand the “costs” of lactation on reproductive performance, particularly under conditions of nutritional constraints. Keywords: lactation, nutrition, red deer, reproduction
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(27 KB)Many aspects of the relationship between nutrition and reproductive performance of red deer hinds are poorly understood. One such example is the feed requirements of hinds during the late stages of pregnancy, for which there is considerable diversity of opinion. The present study aimed to relate feed intake of hinds during the last trimester of pregnancy to dam body condition, foetal development and calf growth. Across 3 years, multiparous (n=33) or primiparous (n=18) hinds with known conception dates were housed in individual pens from days 150 to 220 of pregnancy, during which time they were each offered one of three (H, M and L) daily allowances of pelletised rations. Hinds were returned to pasture at day 220 and calving was closely monitored. Liveweight, body condition score (BCS), and lactation score (LS) were recorded weekly from day 150 through to calf weaning at 12 weeks of age. Additionally, hinds in the first year of study underwent CT scans on days 150 and 215 of pregnancy to assess compositional changes of the dam and conceptus. Mean daily ad libitum intakes of H hinds increased from 1.8 to 3.2 kg DM (0.6 to 0.9 MJME/kg0.75) between days 150 and 220. Those of restricted M and L hinds peaked at 1.8 and 1.6 kg DM, respectively, by day 220. This was reflected in significant treatment effects on liveweight gain and change in BCS and LS by calving. CT scans indicated a significant treatment effect by day 215 on the mass of hind tissues and a non-significant trend on conceptus weights. There were no discernable treatment effects on calf birth weights. However, there was an unexpectedly wide spread in calving dates that reflected considerable variation in gestation length. Gestation length was significantly negatively correlated to change in hind liveweight (but not BCS) between days 150 and 220 of pregnancy. Of three neonatal calf mortalities, none were related to dystocia or non-viability. Subsequent growth rates of surviving calves did not reflect prior treatment of their dams, although variation in birth date influenced weights at specific dates. It is concluded from this study that while variation in nutrition of hinds during the last trimester may influence foetal development, variation in gestation length compensates to ensure optimisation of birth weight. Keywords: gestation, nutr ition, pregnancy, red deer
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(86 KB)Pasture is the primary feed source for NZ deer production with the greatest proportion grazed in situ. The quantity and quality of the pastures available to grazing deer varies markedly as a result of environmental factors and feed planning decisions by deer farmers. The grazing behaviour of deer responds to changes in pasture height and mass and the effect of pasture variables (height, pre -and post-grazing pasture mass and pasture allowance) on deer productivity are presented. These show that maximum levels of deer production from pasture will be achieved at a pasture height of around 8 cm (continuously stocked or post-grazing) although there is some evidence that for large genotypes, higher pasture availability is required. The relationship of liveweight gain of young deer with pasture availability shows marked seasonal effects. At the same level of pasture availability liveweight gain in spring is about twice that in winter, with autumn and summer intermediate. Increasing pasture availability cannot compensate for seasonal differences in liveweight gain. Furthermore, liveweight gain increases at a greater rate in spring than winter to increasing pasture availability, thus it is more important that appropriate pasture allowances are provided in spring than in winter. There is more variability in liveweight gain at a similar pasture availability in summer than in other seasons because of the greater variation in pasture quality in summer with the potential accumulation of seedheads and dead material. Alternative forage species are used in deer production for times of the year when quantity and quality of perennial ryegrass-based pastures limit productivity. Relative to weaner red deer grazed on perennial ryegrass/ white clover pasture, grazing on pure swards of red clover or chicory increased growth during autumn by 26-47% and during spring by 10-14%. The proportion of stags attaining target slaughter liveweight at 12 months of age increased from 75 to 94%. Pre-weaning growth during lactation was increased by approximately 20%. Red clover and chicory produce a greater proportion of their total DM during late summer and autumn than does perennial ryegrass/white clover pasture, and are therefore better aligned with deer feed requirements, particularly those of lactating hinds. Grazing on sulla in autumn and spring increased the growth of weaner deer by 33 and 10%, relative to pasture fed deer. Indoor studies showed that relative to perennial ryegrass, chicory was of higher organic matter digestibility, disintegrated more rapidly in the rumen with a low rumination time and had shorter mean retention time of material in the rumen. This explains differences in voluntary feed intake which were 56, 26 and 15% higher for deer grazing chicory than perennial ryegrass/white clover pastures during summer, autumn and spring respectively. Similar r esults have been found for the digestion of red clover versus perennial ryegrass by red deer. Plant density in stands of both chicory and red clover declines with time, with their lifetime under deer grazing being approximately 4 years. A mixture of both plants offers a food option as specialist forage for increasing deer growth and also fixing nitrogen. To ensure good persistence such forages should not be grazed in periods of prolonged wet weather. Best persistence is obtained when these are managed as specialist forages for increasing deer growth on a small area of the farm, (10- 20% total area), rather than being sown as a mixture with grasses over large areas of the farm. There is no specific comparison of deer production under different stocking systems and both continuous grazing and rotational grazing are used. Based on evidence and practices with other species, choice of stocking system has more to do with pasture/forage species, feed budgeting, pasture management and animal behaviour than with productivity. At high stocking densities (150 deer/ha), the grazing time of subordinate animals is reduced. Where possible, without inducing undue stress (e.g. at weaning), young deer should be grouped for grazing by liveweight. Deer production systems have a seasonal pattern of energy demand that does not match that of pasture growth in most NZ environments. This calls for manipulation of the feed demand by integration of livestock systems and/ or modification of the feed supply through conservation and supplementation. The most commonly used supplements are pasture and lucerne silage/baleage and grain. The quality (ME/kg DM) has a significant impact on the resulting liveweight gain.
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(144 KB)Deer are seasonal animals with a feed intake that varies with day length, reaching a low in winter. Feed intake then rises rapidly in spring. Superimposed on the nutritional response to day length are the genetics of the deer. This paper documents preliminary findings of live weight gain in winter and spring and intake during September for red deer (Cervus elaphus) and elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) x red deer hybrids. Two experiments examined the relative growth rates and feed intake of rising 1 year old red and elk x red hybrid male deer during winter and spring 2001 and 2002. Live weight gain was higher in the elk x red than the red deer in both winter (averaging 262 and 144 g/d respectively) and spring (averaging 390 and 272 g/d respectively). Dry matter intake in September 2001 was 1.64 and 2.13 kg DM/d for red and elk x red deer respectively (P=0.003). Dry matter intake in September 2002 averaged 2.04 and 2.35 kg DM/d (P<0.05) for the red and elk x red deer respectively. Feed intake, when expressed as a percentage of body weight or metabolic body weight terms did not differ between the red and elk x red deer, indicating that the main driver of intake was body size, rather than any true genotype differences. A major difference in weight gain between the genotypes was related to the different size of the animals rather than an inherent difference in their feed conversion efficiency. This r esearch indica tes that maximising the potential of weaners to reach spring slaughter weights is a result of having heavy weaners going into winter combined with a good feeding programme to maximise feed intake. Keywords: elk, genotype, food intake, live weight gain, red deer, seasonality
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(29 KB)Research in China has shown a marked variation in the energy and protein requirements of sika deer (Cervus nippon) for velvet antler production as the stag grows. Information includes energy and protein requirements for male sika deer throughout their life and pregnant and lactating females. Estimates of energy utilization and methane production are also included. Protein requirements during early growth and development of the stag are high, while they decline as the stag ages. Protein requirements during velvet antler growth are higher than during other times of year. The maintenance energy requirements of the male sika deer of 0.52 MJME/ kgBW0.75 are similar to those estimated for red deer. The Chinese system of reporting gross energy, digestible energy and digestible protein requirements has been converted into metabolisable energy requirements and diet protein concentrations for the New Zealand feeding system to aid interpretation. Keywords: Cervus nippon, deer, energy, feed requirements, methane, protein, sika, velvet antler
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(31 KB)There are three key times during the year when deer management interacts with behavioural needs to influence pr oductivity. At calving time , average neonatal losses are 10-12%. The most common causes of perinatal mortality are dystocia, starvation and misadventure. Observational studies have shown that loss of contact between the hind and calf, calf beating by hinds and entanglement of calves in fences are consequences of calving environments with high stocking densities, that lack vegetative or topographical cover, allow disturbance by humans, or provide unfamiliar social or environmental conditions. Weaning is a second critical production phase when management affects pr oductivity. Early post-weaning growth rates in calves weaned before the rut are not influenced readily by feed quality. Reducing weaning stress using management tools such as confining the calves indoors for a few days, or adding some unrelated hinds to the weaned group can improve weight gains at this time. Another option is to delay weaning until the calves are older. Mating time is a third critical period dur ing which management needs to take behavioural needs into account. Appr opriate stag-hind ratios and management at mating that increase the chances of conception have been identified. Suitable social conditions at mating differ between yearling and adult hinds. Fence line pacing is frequently observed at the above three critical times and can occur at other times of the year in response to unfavourable conditions. Pacing consumes energy and contributes to erosion and fence maintenance requirements. Attention to the behavioural needs of deer can help improve performance through appropriate management systems. Keywords: behaviour, calving, fence pacing, management, mating, weaning
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(39 KB)The first deer farms were established in New Zealand about 30 years ago and much of the early deer research was focussed on general nutrition, infectious diseases, management and husbandry practices, while little attention was given to trace elements. Limited trace element studies have identified copper (Cu) as the most important trace element for deer in terms of observed clinical signs of deficiency, namely enzootic ataxia and osteochrondrosis, and their possible impact on animal performance (Wilson et al. 1979; Thompson et al. 1994). To ensure that the Cu status of deer is adequate, and to determine if a Cu supplementation strategy is necessary, it is important to understand the distribution, function and metabolism of Cu, as well as dietary Cu requirements and criteria to diagnosis Cu deficiency. Keywords: Cervus elaphus, copper, deficiency, dietary requirements, fertiliser, forage, red deer, supplementation strategies
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(84 KB)This paper reviews the feeding requirements of adult red deer from nutritional, management and ecological perspectives. Particular emphasis is placed on the need to balance production objectives in the context of ecological sustainability. Topics such as feeding behaviour, feeding management, the relationship of body condition score to nutritional sufficiency, daily and seasonal feed intake requirements, and pasture species selection are also presented. The marketability of venison and the longterm acceptance of deer farming will be largely shaped by consumer perception of the animal welfare implications of production techniques, the ecological impact of production and an industry image that reflects social responsibility. Development of efficient feeding systems for farmed deer will impact on all of these areas.
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(35 KB)The productivity and health of farmed deer is improved by substituting perennial ryegrass-based pasture with forages containing condensed tannins (CT) and/or sesquiterpene lactones. Benefits have included improved lactation, growth, trace element status, resilience to internal parasites and reductions in parasite larval development. Forages evaluated for deer include the forage legumes sulla and birdsfoot tref oil, which contain CT, and the herb chicory, which contains both CT and sesquiterpene lactones. Autumn grazing of weaner deer on chicory has shown growth can be increased whilst anthelmintic requirement reduced compared to grazing of perennial ryegrass/ white clover pasture. The importance of secondary compounds relative to other nutritive characteristics of alternative forage species, such as low fibre and highly digestible carbohydrate concentrations, have not been fully characterised, but they are likely to contribute to improved deer health. Unlike sheep and cattle, deer pr oduce salivary proteins that bind CT, allowing them to consume plants containing higher CT concentrations than sheep and cattle. The effect of CT upon the digestion and absorption of protein, which has been determined for other domestic ruminants, needs to be measured in deer fed forage diets, to establish if beneficial effects exist. In vitro work has shown direct inhibitory effects of CT and sesquiterpene lactones extracted from forages on deer internal parasite larvae. The faeces, rumen and abomasal fluid of deer grazing chicory also contained substances reducing the viability of parasite larvae. Alternative plant species such as chicory, birdsfoot trefoil and forage willows containing secondary compounds will play an important role in low chemical sustainable deer farming. Keywords: anthelmintic, Cichorium intybus,condensed tannins, forage, Hedysarum coronarium, internal parasites, protein, red deer
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(75 KB)The marketing of venison in the 21st century is a huge topic with many and varied challenges for the industry as a whole. Firstly this paper will consider some of the consumer trends that are developing that will affect venison marketing in the future, namely, health, convenience and more restaurant dining. Secondly it will look at tomorrow’s chef – what will their role will be in the future? and what are the implications for venison? How will tomorrow’s markets look, how and where will venison be sold? Finally this paper considers some of the issues we need to be conscious of if we are to maintain our privileged position as a premium product.
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