Four replicates of each of 16 grasses, herbs and legumes were sown on a thoroughbred stud and a deer farm in the Waikato. Grazing stock (horses, deer or calves) were introduced to the plots and their preferences recorded using 4 automatic winding, infrared, remote-triggering cameras, mounted on poles 3 m high. Distinct differences in preferences were identified among horses, deer and calves. ‘Grasslands Matua’ was most preferred with horses spending twice as much time grazing Matua plots as most other grasses. Italian and tetraploid ryegrasses were the next most frequently grazed. Deer showed a clear preference for legumes and herbs, particularly low oestrogen red clover, and calves showed a clear preference for grasses other than ryegrass. The novel photographic technique establishes a reliable method of obtaining a permanent record of grazing animal preferences to pure swards of a range of pasture species. Information on the species preferences of different classes of stock provides the starting point for alternative species to ryegrass and white clover when developing the total farm management system. Keywords pasture species, deer, horses, calves, preference, photographic technique
In spite of the general availability of technical information, computer packages and many years of use of feed budgeting, little evidence has been published on the economic benefits of the practice on farms. Survey data have shown that improved pasture utilisation may be a key factor in improving farm performance. However, this does not prove the necessity for quantitative feed planning on farms. A case is made for constructing data bases of individual farms from regular monitoring of pasture and animal performance, to improve the reliability of feed planning before any detailed feed planning or assessment of new management strategies is commenced. Keywords Computers, feed planning, feed budgeting, simulation model
A number of “progressive” farms in the Pongaroa district were surveyed in 1989 to learn how they had adjusted to deteriorating economic conditions over the period 1984/85 to 1987/88. The results from 20 case studies showed that the farmers had been successful in maintaining productivity. Total farm income per stock unit had increased by 1% and farm surplus by 8%. Adjustments featured improved performance from existing sheep and cattle enterprises, with greater emphasis on wool and dry stock. Diversification to new enterprises had not been an important change for any farmer. Expenditure on fertiliser, feed, repairs and maintenance, and vehicle expenses declined, and monitoring and control of expenditure increased. A comparison of farms that had maintained fertiliser applications with those that had not applied fertiliser showed little difference in gross farm income. Farmers were confident about the future viability of their farms, given a reduction in interest rates. A joint MAF/Federated Farmers’ extension exercise in 1985 had been very successful in preparing farmers for the difficult period since 1984/85. Keywords farm adjustment, farm survey, Pongaroa district, hill country productivity, fertiliser use
Agroforestry is defined, and shown to be a very profitable option for hill country farmers. It is suggested that agroforestry should be part of a normal farm portfolio of investments. A 30 to 50-hectare woodlot can be worth a million dollars to the grower, and thus be worth more than the rest of the farm combined. Research on agroforestry by combined forestry and agricultural scientists has been extensive, and many potential useful discoveries have been made. Worthwhile pasture production can be achieved for half of the tree rotation and good livestock performance is possible under low tree populations. Nevertheless, this technology has not been taken up by farmers, possibly because profit from trees is not considered to be an important use of trees, as two surveys indicate. Keywords agroforestry, profitability, opportunity, potential, hill country
The severity of permanent damage caused by Cyclone Bola to an estimated 65 000 ha in northern Hawke’s Bay is of sufficient magnitude to necessitate complete changes in land use over that region as a whole. Traditional responses to this problem have included a range of incentives which have been principally designed to ensure the continuation of the existing pastoral use. Recent studies have emphasised the need to rationalise land use on the basis of long term sustainability. The costs of facilitating and permanently establishing this change in land use will be high, and an appropriate sponsor must be found, as market forces and commercial enterprise alone will have insufficient incentive to effect the changes. Keywords sustainable land use, farm restructuring, Hawke’s Bay
Five white clover and 5 subterranean clover cultivars were evaluated under ‘on-farm’ conditions at 21 North Island sites over 5 years. Seedlings were established in the field and their content in the sward followed by point analysis. Grasslands Huia, Grasslands Tahora and Whatawhata Early Flowering established most rapidly. Overall, white clover was not altered by the introduction of any cultivar into existing pastures. White clover content of the sward appear to be determined by factors other than genetic potential, such as other species present, current management practices, and climate. All subterranean clover cultivars established populations, though Tallarook was the most successful. At most sites Tallarook regenerated the best, followed by Mt Barker. The contribution to legume density made by any other subterranean clover cultivar was minimal Keywords white clover, subterranean clover, hill country, point analysis
An experiment was designed to determine whether aerating soil with a seed drill coulter, or improving soil fertility through nitrogen application, could reverse the deterioration of a ‘Grasslands Matua’ prairie grass pasture. A simple model outlining the changes in yield components characteristic of pasture deterioration is proposed, against which the effects of the treatments have been compared. The aeration treatment accelerated deterioration, probably because the technique caused plant damage and/or soil compaction. However, autumn nitrogen application was successful in reversing the early stages of pasture deterioration by improving plant size through increased tiller size. Keywords Matua prairie grass, Bromus willdenowii Kunth, soil aeration, nitrogen, model, yield components
The performance of livestock industries in New Zealand is affected by a large spatial and seasonal variability in patterns of pasture production. A software package of a database and a predictive pasture production model has been used to make an initial evaluation of the impact of climate change expected around 2030, on the average seasonal pattern of pasture growth at four sites in New Zealand. Mean annual temperature is expected to be 1.2-1.8” C warmer and annual rainfall 510% less. On two cooler/ wetter sites in Southland and Canterbury (irrigated) the predicted pasture production, compared with present, was substantially better in winter (+80%, +50% respectively), better in spring and autumn (+20 to 40%), and unchanged in summer. On two warmer/ drier sites in East Coast (North Island) and Waikato, similar analyses showed improved autumn and winter growth (20-40%) with production unchanged in spring and slightly depressed in summer. Annual production was increased by 20% at South Island sites and about 5% at North Island sites. The onset of spring growth was 2-4 weeks earlier at all sites. Present technology would be expected to be able to formulate management strategies to cope with pasture changes of this magnitude. More reliable predictions of pasture growth will depend on improved climate models which can predict seasonal change in regional climate throughout New Zealand, especially rainfall variability. Keywords climate change, pasture production, mathematical modelling, regional climate
A grazing trial evaluated the agronomic effectiveness of 3 different types of phosphate (P) fertilisers. The same fertilisers were also evaluated in a small-plot mowing trial located within the grazing trial. In the grazing trial, which covered 35 ha of summer moist hill country, the partially acidulated phosphate rock (PAPR) and reactive phosphate rock (RPR) were as effective as superphosphate in stimulating legume and pasture production in the first year. In the second year the two slow-release materials continued to perform as well as SSP. In contrast in the mowing trial, superphosphate was more effective than RPR in the first year. This trial technique clearly underestimates the initial effectiveness of PAPR and RPR in grazed hill country. The traditional small-plot mowing trial technique, and the role of PAPR and RPR fertilisers in hill country, both need re-evaluation. Keywords hill country, superphosphate, slow release fertilisers, mowing trials, grazed pasture
Many plant species contain condensed tannins (CT), but lotus is one of the few herbages of agricultural importance to contain CT. Lotus has a high nutritive value (NV) despite a moderate protein content and nitrogen digestibility, and this can be explained by the activity of CT during digestion. CT binds plant proteins in the rumen, reducing their solubility and degradation by rumen bacteria. Condensed tannins increase the passage of plant protein to the intestine, and have increased the availability and absorption of essential amino acids by 60% compared with equivalent CT-free forage. Condensed tannins prevent bloat. Dietary concentrations as low as 0.17% CT in the dry matter (DM) can affect protein solubility in the rumen, but concentrations up to about 2-3% of dietary DM are probably optimal for maximising NV. Values exceeding 5.5% of DM inhibit microbial activity excessively and depress voluntary intakes. Ruminant production of milk, meat and wool could be increased by l0-15 % if grazed pasture contained 2-3%CT. These levels would be achieved if white clover could be engineered to contain 7-8% CT in its foliage. Keywords condensed tannins, lotus, nutritive value, herbage, ruminant digestion
Groups of weaned red deer stags were grazed from May to December 1988 under continuous stocking management to maintain mixed perennial ryegrass/white clover pastures, with or without directdrilled ‘Grasslands Moata’ annual ryegrass, at sward heights of 5 cm and 10 cm. Diet selection was estimated from (a) samples of fresh ingesta collected from rumen tistulated animals, and (b) defoliation of marked populations of grass tillers and clover stolon units. Proportion of clover in ingesta samples was consistently smaller than in the pasture, whereas plant observations showed similar frequency and severity of defoliation of grass and clover except in December, when clover was defoliated more severely. Observations on pasture structure indicated that clover foliage occurred lower in the canopy, and was grazed closer to the soil level, than grass leaves. Therefore, despite the evidence on diet composition, the results are interpreted as indicative of active selection for clover by the deer. The results are compared with published evidence on diet selection by grazing sheep. Keywords diet selection, deer, ryegrass, white clover, defoliation frequency, defoliation severity
Pasture growth rates of ryegrass, tall fescue and phalaris were compared under combinations of 2 defoliation heights and 3 defoliation frequencies in mowing trials run in spring, summer, autumn and winter over 2 years. Lax defoliation gave on average 15%, 20% and 21% higher pasture growth rates than intense defoliation for ryegrass, tall fescue and phalaris pastures respectively over all seasons. Climate had a major influence on the response of all three pastures to defoliation management. In a dry spring, tall fescue produced most from a 15day cutting interval while for ryegrass and phalaris production was greatest from a 30day interval. In a wet spring, cutting frequency had no etfect, but a significant (P<0.01) interaction between height and frequency of defoliation occurred for all three pastures. In dry summer and autumn seasons, production was greatest under a l0- to 15day interval for ryegrass and tall fescue, but phalaris was not affected by defoliation frequency. In a dry winter, phalaris had highest growth rates under a 45day defoliation interval while the other two species were unaffected. In wet seasons defoliation management had little effect on growth rates. For maximum growth, defoliation management of tall fesuce differs from that of ryegrass in spring, while management of phalaris for maximum growth differs from that of ryegrass in winter. Keywords growth rates, ryegrass, tall fescue, phalaris, defoliation height, defoliation frequency, climate
Two long-term field trials were carried out in the Wairarapa. One, established on a resident ryegrass/browntop pasture in 1981, compared the effect of lime (0, 1.25, 2.50 and 5.00 t/ha) and superphosphate (0,125,250 and 500 kg/ha) in a 4 x 4 factorial design. The second, started in 1985, compared the response of a similar pasture with that of au oversowu ‘Grasslands Wana’ cocksfoot pasture to 4 rates of lime (0, 1.25, 2.5 and 5.0 t/ha). The major effect of the traditional fertiliser policy was increased spring and, under favourable conditions, increased summer and autumn production. The introduction of cocksfoot guaranteed a more predictable summer supply of feed and improved autumn and winter production. An assessment of 3 methods of designating fertiliser expenditure suggests that continuation with maintenance fertiliser inputs, or a 2.3: 1 substitution of fertiliser expenditure for cocksfoot establishment, would provide greater benefits than discontinuing fertiliser inputs. Keywords ‘Grasslands Wana’, cocksfoot, lime, superphosphate, ferthser, strategies, hill country
Data from pasture and roadside surveys and from an appeal to the public were used to assess whether recent climate warming has increased the spread of C4 grasses. Because of differences in date of introduction, saturation of existing range, ability to spread by seed, frost tolerance, and soil and moisture requirements, each species studied had a different potential increase in response to higher temperatures. Also spread could be exhibited as greater abundance within existing range as well as increase in geographical range. The strongest evidence that could be construed as an effect of climate warming was an increase of about 1.5” latitude in the area of 40% pasture occurrence of paspalum in the last 10-12 years. In the same period both carpet grass and knot-root bristle grass also greatly increased their impact. Most of the species studied (including the annual summer grass) underwent an explosive increase in the last 2-3 years after several particularly mild winters and warm summers. C4 species will probably be an increasing feature of pastures and lawns in future, and this should be accommodated by appropriate management and the introduction of improved pasture and amenity cultivars of this type. Keywords C4 grasses, climate change, paspalum, pasture survey
The production and persistence of ‘Grasslands Mama prairie grass were compared when direct drilled or oversown at a low or high seeding rate, and with or without extra fertiliser before planting. To estimate possible effects of insects on prairie grass persistence, insecticide was applied to a small area. Prairie grass growth during the first winter/spring was greater when direct drilled than when oversown, but thereafter treatment effects disappeared. High seed rate plots maintained higher prairie grass plant and tiller densities than low seed rate plots during the first year, but this did not affect annual herbage accumulation, Two years from sowing, prairie grass plant and tiller densities had declined to a low level in all plots. At this time, prairie grass tiller density and prairie grass content (% of DM) in insecticidetreated areas were about twice those in untreated areas. Mean total annual herbage accumulation in the second year had declined by 21% compared with the first. This work shows that prairie grass does not require extra fertiliser at planting when sown into a well maintained high fertility site, and that direct drilling at a low seed rate produces results similar to those of the traditional method of establishment of oversowing at a high seed rate. Insect attack contributed to poor prairie grass persistence. Keywords Bromus willdenowii Kunth, oversowing, direct drilling, pasture botanical composition, major element composition, tiller density, insect damage, annual herbage accumulation, root yields
Preliminary results are presented from an investigation to identify reasons for the low clover content of hill country pastures in the Gisborne-East Coast region. Four experiments were established near Gisbome. Treatments included: fertiliser versus no fertiliser; summer grazing versus no summer grazing; and clover cultivars (transpanted into swards). Summer rainfall had the major influence on the clover content of swards. With a reliable high summer rainfall the clover content averaged 16% of herbage. By contrast, with less reliable and lower summer rainfall, the clover content averaged 4-5% and subterranean clover was more important, Summer spelling of pasture, which allowed rank grass growth, reduced both white and subterranean clover content of swards. Fertiliser inputs increased the clover content of swards. Performance of cultivars was affected by grazing, differences between cultivars being greatest with summer grazing. The small-leaved cultivars of white clover (‘Grasslands Tahora’ and ‘Whatawhata’) initially performed better than larger-leaved cultivars at the high summer rainfall site, but failed to sustain any advantage. ‘Tallarook’ subterranean clover increased the clover content of swards with summer grazing. Keywords white clover, subterranean clover, East Coast, hill country, fertiliser, grazing management
A large-scale phosphate (P) fertiliser grazing trial was carried out at Whatawhata Research Centre between 1980 and 1984. The effect of 5 fertiliser rates (10, 20 30, 50 or 100 kg P/ha) on pasture production, plant P uptake, dung P distribution, dung decomposition and Olsen P concentration were monitored on 4 slope groups (campsites, O-10”; easy, 1 I-20”; moderate, 21-30” and steep, 31” +). Soils collected from each slope and fertiliser treatment were used in a pot trial to investigate the size of the plant available P pool. Results can be used to interpret data from field trials where fertiliser has been withheld. Initially, pasture production or Olsen P will change little because the most productive areas of the paddock receive large amounts of dung P which buffer the effect of fertiliser withdrawal. On these areas P is cycled more rapidly than on steep slopes, further buffering the system against P deficiency. Small changes in Olsen P do not reflect the more rapid changes in inorganic P or plant-available P. As inorganic P becomes depleted, plant P uptake decreases. The associated decrease in dung P return and the slower rate of dung decomposition contribute to a slowing of the P cycle. The net effect is less feed and slower regrowth after grazing. Recovering from this state will require not only P fertiliser but also time for high producing pasture species to regenerate. Keywords phosphate cycling, topdressing, fertiliser, pasture production, hill country, dung
This paper reports and discusses the results of 4 years of trials (1985-1988) involving 2 farmlets, one receiving 3 nitrogen applications (50 kg /ha) in autumn, winter and spring (+N) and one receiving no N fertiliser (-N). Stocking rags were 3.3 animals/ha on -N farmlet and 4.3 animals/ha on the +N farmlet for the first 3 years, with the objective being to utilise the extra N-boosted grass with extra animals/ha but not to sacrifice individual animal performance. In the fourth year the stocking rates were kept the same on each farmlet (3.3 animals/ha) in an endeavour to utilise the extra grass grown on the +N farmlet by way of increased per head performance. In 2 of the 3 years (1985 and 1987) where the +N farmlet supported the higher stocking rate, liveweight gain (LWG) did not differ between animals. In 1986 the extra animals on the -l-N farmlet had a lower LWG, whereas in 1988 the LWGs were similar for the 2 farmlets stocked at the same rate. The apparent DM responses (kg DM/kg N applied) ranged from 2 to 12. The rates of N fertiliser used in this trial do not appear to result in economic increases in pasture production for the beef production system reported here. Nitrogen fertiliser did not reduce the clover content of pastures rotationally grazed by beef cattle. Keywords beef production, nitrogen fertiliser, pasture composition, livewieght gain, economics.
The property has been owned and operated by a collection of family members for 34 years, having been brought with a keen eye for its forestry potential. My father was in the New Zealand Forest Service, and was a keen advocate of farm forestry. Thus the property has been developed as a sheep and cattle and also as a forestry operation, with production forestry being concentrated on the Foxton and Motuiti soils, i.e., the dunes, along with shelter and woodlot/shelter plantings on the flats. Recently a further 80 ha have been added with the same objectives in mind.
A series of farmlet experiments investigated the effects of lambing dates, grazing methods and weaning/disposal dates on lamb production. Ewe and bull performance was also assessed. Laud contour did not significantly affect November-January lamb growth rates. Slight weight differences (-1 kg) in lambs and ewes occurred with changes in weaning date, but later disposal of lambs reduced both ewe and bull weights. Lamb growth rates were best when weaned lambs grazed in front of ewes and bulls in a quick rotation (25 days). Lambing in early August compared with early September, increased lamb weights but reduced lamb number, bull weight gains and ewe liveweights. At current product values earlier lambing reduced returns per ha. Recommendations are made for finishing lambs within mixed livestock systems in hill country. Keywords lamb, grazing management, hill country, agricultural systems, lambing date
The effect of replacing white clover with fertiliser nitrogen (N) on dry matter production and grass grub populations in ‘Grasslands Roa’ tell fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), ‘Grasslands Mat-u’ phalaris (Phalutis aquatica L.), ‘Grasslands Kara’ cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.), ‘Grasslands Mama’ prairie grass (Bromus willdenowii Kunth) and ‘old’ (30 year plus) ryegrass was measured over a 2 year period. For all pastures the replacement of white clover with fertiliser N significantly reduced grass grub numbers. This was greatest in tall fescue, phalaris and cocksfoot, showing that pure swards of these species were resistant to grass grub. Decreases in grass grub numbers in ryegrass and prairie grass were less. There was overall a significant increase in pasture production by eliminating white clover and applying fertiliser N, with a differential response between species. Average annual production of prairie grass was unaffected, whereas the yield of cocksfoot increased by 9 % and old ryegrass, phalaris and tall fescue increased by 26 % . Most of this extra production for tall fescue and phalaris occurred in autumn. These results show that the use of tall fescue and phalaris and the replacement of white clover with fertiliser N has potential for increasing pasture production in districts subject to grass damage. Keywords old ryegrass, Roa tall fescue, Maru phalaris, Kara cocksfoot, Matua prairie grass, white clover, grass grub, nitrogen fertiliser
Commerical fibre-goat farming has grown in the last 10 years from nil to 1.25 million goats on 9437 farms producing $13.7m fibre income. Development has come through having potentially highly productive goats, mains-powered electric fences to control them, investment capital from outside the industry, and pioneer dedication that also produced an integrated fibre handling and marketing operation, all managed by adaptable and innovative hill country farmers. Goat husbandry and management, including breeding, fibre handling, stocking rates, pasture and weed feeding, need a different attitude and philosophy to those needed for sheep and cattle traditionally farmed on hill country. Fast industry growth has outstripped relevant information and the farm management profession has assisted farmers to develop techniques and systems. Research is now producing some reasons for applied practices. Numbers of farmed goats are expected to continue to increase. Each hill country farm can have a profitable doe and wether flock integrated into sheep and cattle management. Keywords pasture, mohair, cashmere, cashgora, weed control
In a farmlet grazing trial at DSIR’s Ballantrae Hill Country Research Station near Woodville the effect of withholding phosphate application was investigated. Soils are yellow-brown earths and related steepland soils with low phosphate retention, and average annual rainfall is 1200 mm. Four 10 ha farmlets, 2 each with histories of high (HF) or low (LF) superphosphate application, had annual applications continued at 125 (LF-LF) or 375 (HFHF) kg/ha; or discontinued on one farmlet in each case (LF-NF and HF-NF), starting in 1981. Soil Olsen P level decreased on the HF-NF area, but not on LF-NF and pasture production decreased by 4.6 and 1.7% p.a. respectively. Botanical composition was affected only on the HF-NF farmlet. Ewes were lighter as a result of not applying fertiliser. Ewe and lamb wool production, and lamb liveweight, were reduced by an average 1.2, 3.7 and 2.6% p.a., respectively, over the 7 years. A phosphate application trial suggested that reactive phosphate rock was as effective as superphosphate in stimulating legume responses in the 1st year after restarting phosphate application, and had greater residual activity. Keywords fertiliser, withholding, cessation, phosphate, superphosphate, hill country, pastures, soil fertility, wool, sheep
A farmlet grazing trial at the Te Kuiti Research Area (20 km south of Te Kuiti) began in April 1983 to study the effects on production of reducing or withholding fertiliser over a 6-year period. The effects of withholding fertiliser are considered in this paper. The soils on which the trial was conducted are Mahoenui or Mangatea silt loams typical of 1.3 million ha of North Island hill country. Applications of 250 kg/ha/annum of superphosphate had been applied for 10 years before the trial began, leading to Olsen P tests of 14. In spite of moderate soil test levels, declines in both animal and pasture production where fertiliser was withheld were evident from year 2. By years 3-4 onwards, production declines of some 20-30% were evident. Effects on pasture composition where fertiliser was withheld were evident, with less white clover and more moss and weeds. No noticeable increase in scrub weeds or brush weeds occurred. Maintaining a high stocking rate (or stock pressure) was considered a dominant factor in this regard. Keywords grazing trial, fertiliser, hill country, phosphate, animal production, pasture production
Results from fertiliser cessation experiments at Ballantrae, Te Kuiti and Whatawhata, on yellow-brown earths, were used to evaluate the fertiliser cessation compared to continued application on hill country breeding ewe systems. At Balhmtrae, on farmlets previously receiving 125 kg superphosphate/ha/yr, continued fertiliser application generated a positive cash flow after 8 years. On farmIets previously receiving rates of 200-375 kg superphosphate/ha/yr positive cash flows were generated by continued fertiliser application after 4, 5 and 6 years at Te Kuiti, Whatawhata and Ballantrae respectively. Fertiliser cessation is a sound strategy to survive periods of low product price:fertiIiser cost ratio. However, it will decrease sustainable productivity and hence farm resale value. Fertiliser recommendations cannot remain constant over time but must consider: animal enterprise, product and fertiliser price, soil P status, and level of pasture utilisation. Keywords fertiliser cessation, superphosphate, Olsen P, economics, hill country, pasture production
From June 1984 to May 1988 a large-scale grazing trial at Whatawhata Research Centre evaluated the effects of a halt to previous superphosphate fertiliser application on hill country production. Over the 4-years pasture production, pasture species composition, stock grazing days or Olsen P soil fertility status were little affected as a result of halting topdressing. Pasture production declined most on ‘easy’ ( lo-20° slope) slopes after a halt to fertiliser application. The decline was greatest (lo- 13 %) where previous rates of fertiliser had been high. Total production on ‘steep’ (30~40° slope) slopes did not decline significantly. However, at soil test (Olsen P) levels of less than 10 the pasture moss and dead matter content increased, indicating a deterioration in pasture quality. Legume content did not decline. Within the range of normal topdressing rates to hill country (O-30 kg P/ha/yr) Olsen P tests did not reflect topdressing differences or any effects of a halt to fertiliser application. At higher topdressing rates (50-100 kg Plhalyr) the effect of continued or discontinued topdressing was reflected predominantly in the O-3 cm soil depth. A halt to previous topdressing significantly reduced available grazing over the final 3 years. This decline reflected the decline in measured pasture production. Keywords Phosphate, fertiliser, hill country, residual effects
Fine wool production is a small but increasingly important industry in New Zealand. To minimise the effects of fluctuations in world fine wool supply and demand, New Zealand must concentrate on quality. Results of a comparison with Romney ewes and lambs on hard hills at the Wanganui Hill Research Area, show that Merinos have performed well. Although flystrike and a lower tolerance to internal parasites were observed, predicted feet and wool quality problems did not eventuate. Any special management required has been more than compensated for by the 48% higher gross margins achieved in 1988-89 ($25.90 per stock unit or $337/ha from Merinos). Throughout the 1980s even when SMPs supported high lamb prices, Merinos would have been a better proposition than prime lamb. All farmers, especially those changing to Merinos, need to concentrate more on wool quality and quantity rather than lambing percentages and lamb weights. A Merino enterprise can be entered in two ways. Buying Merinos has a high initial cost, but the financial benefits are immediate and can be budgeted with more confidence using recent prices. Using Merino rams over crossbred ewes is a low cost alternative which is much slower (15 years), but the financial gains, although present from year 1, are much reduced, particularly in the early years. In North Island hill country where inputs are low, Merinos are proving to be a profitable diversification option. The increase in disposable farm surplus of $33,100 in the 1989/90 year from a 3200 sheep stock unit hill country farm, has been much needed by farmers in recent years, and may have saved some from having to leave farming. Keywords Merinos, hill country, wool, diversification
An overview of the variety in New Zealand bred pasture cultivars is obtained by comparing the group against the variety that has developed in the whole spectrum of herbaceous plants during evolution. This was done by classifying each cultivar into one of seven different ecological groupings termed strategies. Each strategy grouping represents a different mature functional type; the seven groupings collectively cover the full range of mature plant types. This preliminary classification confirmed that there are different ecological strategies in our cultivar range but, as might be expected, they represent only a small part of the full range of ecological options. All cultivars are best suited to moderate grazing and high to medium fertility. The information obtained by viewing pasture cultivars in this wider context is used to predict that further breeding is needed to develop pasture cultivars for extreme situations and for use in mixtures. Stress tolerance associated with a rapid, contracted life-span appears to, be the best option for cultivars for dry or low-fertility pastures. It is also predicted that complex pasture mixtures are likely to be easier to maintain and of more value in lower fertility or moderately droughted pastures than in highly fertile pastures. Opportunities exist to develop additional cultivars suited to the different niches in these pastures. Amalgamation of knowledge from agricultural and non-agricultural research can clearly help solve agricultural problems and is an efficient use of science. Means should be sought to use information from both fields to look at finer-scale questions about cultivars. Keywords plant breeding, strategy theory, low fertility, drought, pasture mixtures, plant competition, niche differentiation, species diversity, science
Dry matter (DM) production and seasonal distribution of old ryegrass/white clover pasture defoliated at 14- and 28day intervals, and new sowings of ‘Grasslands Maru’ phalaris (Phaluris aquatica L.), ‘Grasslands Roa’ tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), and ‘Grasslands Kara’ cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) at 28day defoliation intervals were evaluated in an environment prone to grass grub damage and dry summer/autumn periods. Under a 28&y defoliation interval old ryegrass produced 2O%more DM that the 14-day defoliation interval, the difference occuring mainly in spring. Annual production, in the initial 4 years, of phalaris and tall fescue was respectively 17 % and 20 % more than that of old ryegrass. Phalaris was superior to old ryegrass in all seasons. Cocksfoot annual production was similar to that of old ryegrass, producing more in summer (9%) and autumn (19%) but 15% less in spring. Results from year 5 and 6 suggest that phalaris may not be as persistent as tall fescue. A 28-day rotation in spring is recommended to maximise production of old ryegrasslclover pasture. Phalaris and tall fescue are recommended as alternative species to old ryegrass in a grass grub prone and/or summer dry environment. Cocksfoot is not recommended. Keywords pasture production, seasonal distribution, cow requirements, old ryegrass, phalaris, tall fescue, cocksfoot
On 6 of a set of 12 self-contained experimental farmlets, improved pasture cultivars ‘Ellett’ ryegrass, ‘Grasslands Wana’ cocksfoot, ‘Grasslands Tahora’ white clover, Whatawhata Early Flowering’ white clover, ‘Mount Barker’ sub clover, ‘Tallarook sub clover, ‘Grasslands Mama prairie grass, ‘Grasslands Pitau white clover and ‘Grasslands Pawera’ red clover were successfully established in 1986. Measurements began May 1987. Results presented to May 1989 include pasture production, animal production and financial returns. Matua prairie grass failed to persist beyond spring 1988 but clovers including Pawera and Pitau in these pastures increased summer production in 1989. In summer 1989 the improved steep pastures produced 8 kg DM/ha/day more feed than the resident pastures, with most of this increase owing to Wana cocksfoot. Lamb numbers and lamb weight gains were greater with improved pastures. Bulls were priority finishing animals and their weights were insensitive to pasture treatment. Current returns from this experiment show little to justify the investment made in introducing new cultivars into existing developed hill pastures. Keywords pasture cultivars, hill country, finishing systems, pasture improvement
Several combinations of N, P and K fertilisers and the herbicides 2,4-D or glyphosate were tested in conjunction with conservation tillage for ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) control in a low fertility hill country pasture. The trial started in March 1988 and assessments have been made for 12 months. Results so far have shown that development of a dense competitive sward by adequate fertiliser is essential to miuimise the ragwort infestation. The combination of 2,4-D and phosphate fertiliser resulted in the best sward composition and growth, and allowed the least re-invasion of ragwort into the pasture. Keywords Senecio jacobaea, 2,4-D, glyphosate, fertilisers, NPK, chemical control, herbicides, dairy pastures, pasture renovation
The response of ‘Grasslands Mama’ prairie grass to waterlogging on different soil types was determined and compared with that of Ellett perennial ryegrass in a glasshouse pot trial at Massey University. During the waterlogging, rate of leaf extension (mm/tiller/day) of Matna prairie grass plants decreased, senescence rate (mm/tiller/day) increased, shoot:root ratio increased, and percentage of total plant weight as dead material increased, compared with unwaterlogged plants. These responses were more extreme on a clay soil than a sand, and a long rather than a short soak treatment, and generally disappeared on removal of the waterlogging stress. Shoot:root ratio of ryegrass decreased in response to waterlogging, but changes in components of plant dry weight were minor compared with those of Matna prairie grass. Matna is more sensitive to waterlogging than Ellett ryegrass, and Matna must be sown in the correct environment for it to persist and perform. Keywords Matua prairie grass, Ellett ryegrass, waterlogging, soil oxygen, shoot:root ratio, leaf elongation, leaf senescence
At present most pasture fertiliser recommendations are based on the nutrient requirements of perennial ryegrass. The requirements of alternative pasture species are not fully understood and fertiliser is generally applied as for perennial ryegrass. Yatsyn 1 perennial ryegrass, ‘Grasslands Matua’ prairie grass and ‘Grasslands Wana’ cocksfoot were grown in sand culture to determine their phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) requirements. Yatsyn and Matna had similar requirements for P and K while Wana required a lower level of K and more P to attain 90% of maximum yield. Magnesium levels in the herbage differed between species and decreased as K applied increased. It is concluded that further studies should be done to more accurately determine the nutrient requirements of alternative pasture species in the field so that accurate and balanced fertiliser applications can be made for alternative pasture species. Keywords phosphorus, potassium, Bromis willdenowii, Lolium perenne, Dactylis glomerata, nutrient requirements
In the glasshouse chicory (Cichon’um intybus L.) shoot growth was not influenced by variations in soil pH from 4 to 6. The concentration in shoot dry matter of aluminium, cadmium, iron, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, tin and strontium was not affected by pH. Zinc, boron, manganese, potassium and sulphur all decreased significantly with increasing pH while calcium increased. Eight elements (arsenic, cobalt, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, lead, selenium, silicon) were below the limits of measurement. The concentrations of major elements in field grown chicory were similar to those in the glasshouse plants. Potassium, sodium, calcium, sulphur, boron, manganese and zinc in chicory were at levels higher than those normally found in ryegrass and white clover. The results co&m that chicory may supply grazing animals with some minerals at relatively high concentrations. Keywords chicory, Cichorium intybus, element composition, soil pH, pH requirement
Establishment and management problems have been identified as limitations to the productivity of birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) in hill and high country environments. Nodulation failures owing to ineffective inoculation techniques, low seedling vigour, and slow initiation of symbiotic nitrogen fixation are major problems in establishment. Competition from resident species and inappropriate grazing management can lead to poor persistence and stand performance. Recommendations to improve establishment, persistence and productivity include inoculating at 5 times the manufacturer’s stipulated rate and drilling, witbin 24 hours of inoculation, at no more than 12 mm depth Weed control is essential. Stands should be sown pure or with non aggressive companion species, and rotationally grazed. Keywords Lotus corniculatus, birdsfoot trefoil, establishment, N fixation, inoculation, management
Premiums offered by some dairy companies for milk produced in the winter months led No. 1 Dairy Farm at Massey University to explore and instigate alternative options for winter milk production. Options were evaluated in a number of computer models, using information gathered from the farm. Transition to 100% autumn calving began in November 1987. 100% autumn calving improved gross margin from the enterprise and provided opportunities to further research problems inherent to winter milk production. Calving cows in autumn coincides with declining pasture growth. Shortfalls between pasture production and stock requirements in early lactation are filled using conserved pasture. The losses and inefficiencies associated with conserving feed are largely responsible for the lower stocking rate carried and lower total production from the farm. Fertiliser nitrogen and winter-active pasture species assume importance in the feeding strategy on the farm. Keywords winter milk production, grassland management
Breeding projects have been carried out in each of five grass species already common in New Zealand moist hill country. Although the source of breeding material varied widely among the five species, the breeding goals in each were for improved amount and seasonal spread of productivity, persistence, disease resistance, palatability, uniform heading, and tolerance of white clover. The projects began around 1973 and were all completed by 1980. From 198 I-85, the selections were evaluated in small plots on sunny and shady slopes of hill country near Palmerston North. In all species except Yorkshire fog, the selections outyielded their respective commercial controls in the first l-2 years. In the two browntop species (Agrostis capillaris and A. castellana) this superiority continued through the trial, despite selective grazing pressure. In Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) and red fescue (Festuca rubra) the selections were more palatable but not as persistent as their controls after 5 years. In crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus) neither selection nor control persisted, and the mowing regime applied did not allow natural reseeding. In a further trial on lowland, all five selections except dryland browntop were confirmed as considerably more palatable than the controls, and most had more clover content. The best strategy would probably be to market these selections as a hill country/lower fertility seed package (with suitable clovers), so as to exclude less palatable components. Keywords hill country, breeding, browntop, Yorkshire fog, crested dogstail, red fescue, low fertility grasses
A rise in temperature of 0.5 to 1 .O”C in the past century, resulting from an increased volume of atmospheric ‘greenhouse’ gases, has been caused by the burning of fossil fuels, industrial processes and agricultural activities. The consequences of this enhanced greenhouse effect by 2050 will be a 2.O”C rise in temperature, lower rainfall in eastern districts, and a 0.5 m rise in sea level. Likely impacts on the rural sector include the southward movement of crop types, the introduction of subtropical crops, an increase in the growing season, the shortening of crop maturation times, and an increase in the frost-free area. Water supplies may dwindle in eastern areas and more frequent, damaging cyclones might increase on-farm costs. Sea level rise may affect drainage in coastal areas and contaminate aquifers. Pests and weeds may increase in number and type. Strategic planning at farm and regional level is vital to accommodate the change. Keywords greenhouse gases, global warming, climate change, strategic planning, rural change
Sechura reactive phosphate rock (SPR) and triple superphosphate (TSP) have been compared as phosphate fertihsers for pastures in a series of 19 field trials dispersed throughout New Zealand, each continuing for 3-6 years. Both fertilisers were applied annuaIly at 4 rates. In the first 2 years SPR was much less effective at increasing dry matter yields than TSP, but its performance improved markedly with time. In year 6 SPR outyielded TSP at alI application rates for all sites combined. The relative performance of SPR and TSP differed markedly at different sites. Very high soil phosphate retention and a combination of low moisture and high pH appeared to be unfavourable for SPR performance. In most sites SPR was equal or superior to TSP by year 6. SPR substantially raised molybdenum concentration in clovers, and this may have contributed to its superior performance at some sites. As TSP and single superphosphate were equally effective, the good performauce of SPR and the relative cheapness of reactive phosphate rocks suggest an important role for the latter on New Zealand pastures. Keywords Sechura phosphate rock, reactive phosphate rock, RPR, superphosphates, phosphate fertilisers
Plots of perennial ryegrass were grazed by sheep at 3 to 4-week intervals under hard (postgrazing herbage mass 1000 kg DM/ha) and lax (2000 kg DM/ha) management from October 1986 to August 1988. In early December 1987 treatments on half the plots were switched, giving 4 combinations of hard and lax grazing with 4 replicates. Tiller populations were consistently higher under hard than lax grazing. Net pasture and leaf production rates were also generally higher under hard grazing, because higher senescence losses compensated for higher rates of pasture growth under lax grazing. The switch from hard to lax grazing in late spring gave a transient increase in net pasture production, but the switch from lax to hard grazing at the same time resulted in a high tiller appearance and enhanced net leaf production over the summer. Management strategies to take advantage of this latter effect in pasture systems are discussed briefly. Keywords Tiller population, tissue turnover, grazing management, perennial ryegrass
Species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Robinia pseudoacacia, and 8 clonal derivatives of 3 species of hybrid cypresses were planted as a one-row shelterbelt on an exposed, unimproved and seasonally dry pasture in North Canterbury. Plots were single trees, replicated 4 times. The trial is located at 500 m altitude on a sunny, 30” slope exposed to north-west Fohn winds. Supplementary water, essential on such country, was applied initially to aid establishment. The performance of the 19 species and clones 4.5 years after planting is reported, based on survival, height growth, habit, and resistance to pests and diseases. Species are classed as ‘acceptable’, ‘promising’ and ‘unsuitable’, and include both tall (dominant) and complementary or ‘infiller’ shelter species. Currently, favourable species include Eucalyptus gunnii, E. nicholii and possibly E. tennairamis as dominants, and Acacia floribunda and x Cupressocyparis leylandii ‘Leighton Green’ as infillers. The importance of management for successful establishment and maintenance of effective shelter is stressed. Keywords shelter, drought, hill pasture, shelter tree species, tree clones, Euca!yptus species, Acacia species, Robinia pseudoacacia, x Cupressocypark species, hybrid cypresses, shelter management
Aotearoa is g restless land with an eventful though isolated history which has spawned many distinctive biological qualities. Human occupation decreased our isolation and increased rates of change. Consequently, our potential natural and cultural identity is in danger of being swamped by cosmopolitan, temperate elements. This has serious consequences for agriculture, tourism, our sensitivity to local and global environmental issues, and the development of a nationhood founded on sturdy roots that dig deeply into the texture and history of the land. We examine the values of natural landscape, concepts of land custodianship, a conservation ethic and practical ways of integrating protection of natural values and sustainable production. Keywords change, conservation, culture, development, habitats, history, land management, landscape, vegetation
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