A review of the economic impact of high levels of variance in
fertiliser spreading systems
M.C.E. GRAFTON, I.J. YULE and M.J. MANNING
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Recent technological improvements in Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) have made it possible to
measure the accuracy of fertiliser spreading in the field.
This demonstrates that the field coefficient of variation,
“field CV”, of actual spread patterns on farms is
significantly higher than appreciated by most end users
and service providers. Levels of field CV greater than
40% for spreading N fertiliser produces a 20% yield
reduction, which in terms of urea on dairy pasture is
potentially around $170 million nationally, and is
economically significant. Manufacturers of fertiliser
spreading equipment and ground-spread applicators
have introduced improved delivery technologies which
reduce field CV. Mostly these improvements relate to
GPS use to assist drivers, automated maintenance of
bout width, control of product flow and provision of
automatic start-stop control. These improvements have
the potential to reduce CV to 20% and reduce economic
loss to 3%. Similarly, combinations of GIS methods
and differential global positioning systems (DGPS) will
assist pilots to reduce field CV from 70% to 40%.
Keywords: Geographic Information Systems,
coefficient of variation, fertiliser spreading accuracy,
real time kinematic, spread pattern.
A review of the effect of autumn nitrogen fertiliser on pasture
nitrogen concentration and an assessment of the potential
effects on nitrate leaching risk
M. SHEPHERD and G. LUCCI
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The aim was to test the hypothesis that nitrogen (N)
fertiliser applied in autumn increases N leaching
by increasing pasture N concentration (Nconc) and
thus increasing partitioning of excretal N to urine. A
review of past data showed that N fertiliser application
generally had only a small effect on pasture Nconc, on
average. The general effect was ±5% or less for single
applications of 50 kg N/ha or less, compared with nil
N fertilised pasture, depending on the season. Based
on this, we estimated that the increase in pasture Nconc
from autumn fertiliser is less important for nitrate
leaching risk than the extra forage grown, and the
resultant extra N consumed and excreted as a result of
the applied fertiliser N. However, if the period between
fertiliser application and grazing is short, the elevation
in Nconc is likely to be larger with a greater influence
on partitioning to urinary N.
Keywords: Nitrogen, fertiliser, pasture nitrogen
concentration, urine
Addressing on-farm management to enhance pasture productivity
and persistence
W.N. REYNOLDS
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Following the 2007/08 drought, we experienced poor
pasture production and persistence on our dairy farm
in north Waikato, leading to decreased milksolids
production and a greater reliance on bought-in feed.
It is estimated that the cost of this to our farming
operation was about $1300 per hectare per year in lost
operating profit. While climate and black beetle were
factors, they did not explain everything, and other
factors were also involved. In the last 3 years we have
changed our management strategies to better withstand
dry summers, the catalyst for which was becoming
the DairyNZ Pasture Improvement Focus Farm for
the north Waikato. The major changes we made were
to reduce stocking rate, actively manage pastures in
summer to reduce over-grazing, and pay more attention
to detail in our pasture renewal programme. To date the
result has been a reduced need for pasture renewal, a lift
in whole farm performance and increased profitability.
Keywords: Focus farm, over-grazing, pasture
management, pasture persistence, profitability
Adoption of forage technologies
JOHN CARADUS, SIMON LOVATT and BRUCE BELGRAVE
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Pastoral farmers seek to continue to increase on-farm
productivity, and to do this they need new forage options
that they can adopt into their current management
strategies. Four case studies show that New Zealand
farmers have rapidly adopted new technologies that
include forage herbs, white clovers with improved
stolon growing point densities, and novel endophyte
technologies. The less disruptive these technologies
are to accepted farmer management strategies the
greater the likelihood of adoption.
Keywords: Forage technologies, adoption, chicory,
white clover, endophytes
An assessment of the implications of timing and soil nitrogen
dynamics during and after summer drought on Waikato Allophanic soils
G.M. LUCCI, M. SHEPHERD and I. VOGELER
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Recommendations for farming when coming out
of a drought are to apply fertiliser nitrogen (N), but
when a drought breaks late in the season (i.e. mid to
late autumn), the release of soil N has the potential to
compound fertiliser N loads at a time when pasture
N demand is low. Using the APSIM model, based on
measurements made on a Waikato dairy farm and using
data from the drought of 2007/8, an accumulation of
20 kg NO3-N/ha in the top 50 cm of soil post-drought
was predicted, and therefore any fertiliser N applied
during the drought would have added to the available
N pool. Where a total of 70 kg N/ha fertiliser was
applied during the drought, 35 kg NO3-N/ha was
leached during the following winter. A glasshouse trial
was subsequently run to observe N dynamics under
controlled conditions. The pot trial confirmed that a
substantial amount of available N was released (40–60
kg N/ha; 0–15 cm) upon rewetting after a “severe”
drought, which may be sufficient to promote growth.
The ability of pasture to grow and utilise soil/fertiliser
N and the subsequent risk of N leaching will depend on
how late in the season drought soils are returned to field
capacity and when drainage commences.
Keywords: pasture, nitrogen, nitrate leaching, nitrogen
fertiliser, drought, ASPIM
An evaluation of the Land and Environment Planning Toolkit for
advancing soil and nutrient management on sheep and beef farms
K.A. SYNGE, A.D. MACKAY and A.S. PALMER
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The Land and Environment Planning (LEP) Toolkit
recently re-launched by Beef + Lamb NZ is a package
developed to assist the sector with resource and business
planning. The toolkit includes workbooks and guidelines
and consists of an introductory level (Level 1) through
to more advanced Levels 2 and 3, each providing a stepby-
step guide to assist farmers with on-farm business
and environment planning. To date the evaluation of the
toolkit has been very limited. Using a case study farm
and interactive workshops, the usefulness of each of the
three levels of the toolkit for tackling current and future
drivers that will shape soil and nutrient management in
hill country were determined. Each level was analysed
against three drivers: freedom to operate, nutrient use
efficiency and ability to demonstrate sustainability
using a framework developed as part of the study. The
findings from this research support the use of the LEP
Toolkit in a stepwise approach. The introductory (1a
and 1b) levels of the toolkit proved useful in raising
awareness, but offered little assistance in developing
tailored solutions. Level 2 and 3 proved more useful
in advancing soil and nutrient management by breaking
the farm down into land management units on the basis
of the underlying physical resources. Level 3 with the
inclusion of detailed resource information allows for a
comprehensive analysis of the farm across all three drivers
for both business planning and if required for reporting.
Keywords: Soil and nutrient management tools, sheep
and beef, sustainability
Are diverse species mixtures better pastures for dairy farming?
S.L. WOODWARD, C.D. WAUGH, C.G. ROACH, D. FYNN and J. PHILLIPS
view more
Pressure on New Zealand’s largely pasture-based
dairy industry has grown with a drive to increase
production, expansion into new regions and demand
for farmers to mitigate environmental impacts e.g.,
leaching of excess urinary nitrogen. A 3-year trial in
the Waikato investigating the use of mixed pasture (e.g.
perennial ryegrass, white clover, prairie grass, lucerne,
chicory and plantain) showed similar annual dry
matter (DM) production to standard pasture (perennial
ryegrass and white clover) with greater yields of mixed
pasture during summer (December, January, February)
when lucerne and chicory grew better than perennial
ryegrass in the warm, dry conditions. However, this
yield advantage did not persist during the winter (June,
July, August). Milk yields from cows grazing the mixed
and standard pasture were similar. The mixed pasture
retained a high level of species diversity and, while
a single “magic bullet” is an unlikely solution to the
challenges facing dairy farmers, increased species
diversity could reduce risks and increase pasture
stability.
Keywords: pasture species diversity, dry matter yield,
milk, nitrogen
Autumn establishment of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) inoculated
with four different carriers of Ensifer meliloti at four sowing dates
D.B.S BLACK and D.J. MOOT
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The effects of autumn sowing dates (26 January 2012,
21 February 2012, 15 March 2012, 3 April 2012)
and inoculant carriers (ALOSCA®, coated seed,
Nodulator® and peat slurry) on lucerne (Medicago
sativa L.) establishment and yield were studied at
Lincoln University on a variable Templeton silt loam
soil. For the 2012/13 regrowth season the January
(14.7 t/ha) sowing date yielded more dry matter (DM)
than the March (11.2 t/ha) and April (7.3 t/ha) sowing
dates, and February (13.2 t/ha) was intermediate. All
four inoculation carriers resulted in increased DM
and nitrogen (N) yields compared with the bare seed
control. A comparison of the peat inoculated and bare
seed treatments indicated an extra 335 kg N/ha was
removed in herbage from the inoculated treatments.
Results highlight the importance of rhizobia, biological
nitrogen fixation, and seed inoculation when sowing
lucerne into soil with no paddock history of lucerne.
Keywords: alfalfa, ALOSCA®, bare seed, biological
nitrogen fixation, coated seed Nodulator®, peat slurry
treated seed, rhizobia.
Critical success factors when going global:
Agribusiness co-operative growth
T.O.R. MACDONALD and J. S. ROWARTH
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Agricultural co-operatives make a significant
contribution to New Zealand’s economy, but “going
global” involves the realities of conducting business
at an international scale with potential for significant
risk exposure in both the short and long run. This
paper provides a case study analysis detailing the
critical success factors for agribusiness co-operatives
growing internationally. The paper studies the
strategies of three New Zealand agri-co-operatives
with international business ventures (Ravensdown, the
Dairy Goat Co-operative, and Fonterra). The case data
suggests international success is a factor of sufficient
access to capital, strong customer relationships, value
chain management and maintaining control through
competitive advantage.
Keywords: Case study, co-operative, critical success
factors, international growth, strategy
Critical success factors when going global:
New Zealand dairy companies
A.P. SCOTT, S. BOWDEN and J.S. ROWARTH
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New Zealand dairy companies are being encouraged
to expand in offshore markets, and capitalise on the
increasing demand for high quality dairy products
in emerging nations. To succeed internationally
dairy companies need to invest in capturing their
value chain and securing suppliers effectively, as
well as developing intangible assets, like customer
relationships, international partnerships, strong brands
and reputations. This paper examines seven critical
success factors, identified from comparing academic
literature on international success and the preceding
background paper, to three case studies on the New
Zealand dairy companies, Tatua Dairy Co-operative,
Synlait Ltd, and Fonterra Ltd.
Keywords: critical success factors, international
business strategy, New Zealand dairy industry,
exportation
Critical success factors when going global: New Zealand farming systems
in South America
S.C. WILSON and J. S. ROWARTH
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New Zealanders are being encouraged to find offshore
investment opportunities where using a New Zealand
farming system will give a competitive advantage.
This analysis investigated three pasture-based dairying
operations in South America. A comparison of the
three cases against a framework for dairying success
identified in the literature enabled critical success
factors to be identified. These included infrastructure,
human and animal capital, and an understanding of
culture.
Keywords: Capital, culture, infrastructure, labour
Critical success factors when going global: the basic challenge
J.S. ROWARTH, A.P. SCOTT, T.O.R. MACDONALD, S.C. WILSON and F.G. SCRIMGEOUR
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The Government’s Growth Agenda is to increase the
ratio of exports to GDP from the current 30% to 40%
by 2025. New Zealand agribusinesses of all types are
being urged to use knowledge and expertise overseas
to increase export revenue in order to assist with
achieving the agenda. Over the last two decades there
have been numerous attempts to “go global” with varied
success. There have also been a considerable number
of commissioned reports on how companies should
proceed. Pastoral farmers rely on their processors and
marketers to return an income to their business, but
some co-operatives and companies are more successful
than others. This paper gives the background for the
case studies in the three papers which follow comparing
(a) export strategies for dairy companies, (b) increasing
suppliers/customers for co-operative companies and
(c) taking New Zealand knowledge and expertise in
farming systems offshore.
Keywords: Export, relationships, supply-chain, value-add
Decision tools for managing insect pest outbreaks in pastures
S.M. ZYDENBOS, C.M. FERGUSON, R.J. TOWNSEND, J.E. DUNBAR, S. PEOPLES,
B.E. WILLOUGHBY, P.M.S. LANE and T.A. JACKSON
view more
Outbreaks of insect pests can cause major losses in
pasture productivity, but farmers are often poorly
equipped to evaluate risk factors, predict pest impacts
and determine appropriate control actions. Decision
tools are described for pasture pest management using
three case studies. For grass grub, “at risk” paddocks are
identified based on factors such as time since sowing,
soil type and larval damage the previous autumn/
winter. Targeted populations measurements can then
be taken and a decision to control grass grub made
using this objective measurement and/or an assessment
of the pasture value, termed the insurance approach.
For manuka beetle, pesticide application decisions are
based on damage scores of individual paddocks and the
correlation between these scores and larval densities.
With porina, information on moth flight times, larval
populations and pasture damage are used to make key
control decisions. For all pests, decisions to control
should be made in conjunction with other farm systems
information, including the costs of lost forage production
and long-term impacts on pasture persistence.
Keywords: grass grub (Costelytra zealandica), porina
(Wiseana spp.), manuka beetle (Pyronota spp.), farmer
decision-making
Effects of potassium, sodium and chloride fertiliser rates on fodder
beet yield and quality in Canterbury
E. CHAKWIZIRA, E.D. MEENKEN, S. MALEY, M. GEORGE, R. HUBBER,
J. MORTON and A. STAFFORD
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There is renewed interest in fodder beet (Beta vulgaris
L.) production in the South Island of New Zealand.
However, recommended agronomic practices for
maximising productivity and quality are limited. Two
experiments investigating the effects of different
rates (kg/ha) of potassium (K; 150 or 300), sodium
(Na; 100 or 200) and chloride (Cl; 240) fertiliser
application on fodder beet dry matter (DM) production,
nutrient concentration and uptake were carried out at
Southbridge (2011) and Bankside (2012), Canterbury,
New Zealand. Final DM yield was unaffected by the
treatments: averaging 32 t DM/ha at Southbridge
and 21 t DM/ha at Bankside. However, there was a
significant interaction between K and both Cl and
Na, on DM yield at Southbridge. Specifically, yield
increased to 38 t DM/ha with Na and decreased to 30
t DM/ha with Cl, in the presence of K. Application of
K, Na, and Cl fertiliser increased the respective tissue
mineral concentration and respective total uptake for
both the bulb and shoot components. Potassium tended
to depress crude protein, neutral detergent fibre and
ash content of the bulbs and increase the metabolisable
energy and soluble sugar. The combination of low fibre
and high soluble sugar concentrations puts animals
at risk of rumen acidosis. These results suggest that
fodder beet crops subjected to high rate of soil and/ or
fertiliser K should be supplemented with feed high in
crude protein and fibre.
Key words: Beta vulgaris L., agronomic
practices, mineral concentration, mineral uptake,
quality attributes.
Effects of soil fertility and compaction on root dynamics in a
perennial ryegrass–white clover pasture
M.B. DODD and A.D. MACKAY
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Pasture root mass and production were measured in
two experiments in the Manawatu region. The first
examined the effects of nitrogen (N) inputs and soil
phosphorus (P) status over one year (2008/9) and the
second examined the interacting effects of soil P status
and artificial soil compaction over one year (2011/12).
Root mass was measured by soil core sampling and
root production was measured by an in-growth core
technique, to 120 mm depth. Over most of the two
periods studied there were no significant differences in
root mass or production between treatments. However,
higher N+P fertility resulted in 20% lower root mass
but 32% higher root production during September
and November 2008. In 2011/12, soil compaction
reduced root production by approximately 22% yearround.
Increased soil P fertility did not compensate for
this effect. Fertility effects on root growth seem more
influenced by N than P in this system.
Keywords: nitrogen, phosphorus, root production, soil
compaction
Endophyte-infection reduces leaf dehydration of ryegrass and tall
fescue plants under moderate water deficit
L. HE, J.-H.B. HATIER, S.D. CARD and C. MATTHEW
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Drought stress is one of the limiting factors in
perennial ryegrass growth and development. In order
to investigate the drought responses among different
cultivars and evaluate the role of fungal endophyte in
modifying drought responses, a glasshouse experiment
was conducted using ryegrass cultivars ‘Alto’ and
‘Banquet II’, and a Mediterranean tall fescue cultivar,
‘Grasslands Flecha’ as contrast with the two ryegrass
cultivars. Under drought stress ‘Flecha’ had a higher
stomatal conductance and transpiration rate than the two
ryegrass cultivars, and also significantly greater deeproot
allocation. Endophyte-infected plants exhibited
reduced leaf dehydration under stress compared with
endophyte-free plants. Under stress, endophyte-free
plants displayed significantly lower relative water
content and a more negative leaf water potential and
osmotic potential than well-watered endophyte-free
plants, whereas endophyte-infected plants displayed
smaller and non-significant changes when subjected to
water deficit stress. Endophyte-infected plants also had
less deep-root allocation than endophyte-free plants.
The results of this study increase understanding of the
relationship between endophytes and their ryegrass or
tall fescue hosts under drought stress.
Keywords: deep-root allocation, Epichloë, gas
exchange parameters, Neotyphodium, plant water
relations, Lolium perenne
Evaluating the predictive ability of a mechanistic model of
nitrogen partitioning applied to lactating dairy cows
consuming ryegrass-based diets
R.E. VIBART, F.Y. LI, I. VOGELER and R. CICHOTA
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The ability to understand and predict ruminant nitrogen
(N) partitioning has become important as concerns
over the environmental impact of pastoral agriculture
increase. A mechanistic model of N partitioning from
dairy cows consuming ryegrass was used to quantify
the amount of N secreted in milk, urine, and faeces, and
retained in body tissues. Data from lactating dairy cows
(13 N balance experiments) were used to evaluate the
model. Predictions for milk, urinary, faecal, and total
excreta N were in agreement with observed values.
Empirical models have been successful in predicting N
partitioning from ruminants, but such approaches lack
the underlying biological processes and may not apply
to all observed values. An improved representation
of the underlying mechanisms of N partitioning and
the possibility of identifying areas where knowledge
is lacking was achieved by the use of the current
mechanistic model.
Keywords: Nitrogen, milk N, urinary N, faecal N,
empirical, mechanistic.
Herbage production from five grazable forages
E. M. K. MINNEÉ, C. E. F. CLARK and D. A. CLARK
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Maintaining an adequate feed supply throughout the
year is an important consideration in dairy systems.
Systems based on perennial ryegrass pastures are often
limited by poor growth and feed quality when soil
moisture is low and temperatures are high. Alternative
forage species better adapted to these conditions
may provide options for maintaining feed supply.
Annual and seasonal dry matter (DM) production,
and nutritive value of five grazable forages with and
without irrigation were compared under cutting in the
Waikato over two successive years. Perennial ryegrass
produced the greatest annual DM yield in both years
under both irrigation regimes, largely through superior
cool season production and mild temperatures with
above average rainfall during the experiment. Plantain
tended to provide more DM than perennial ryegrass
under irrigation in summer and autumn, a time when
additional DM is important for maintaining milk
production. With the exception of sudan grass, nutritive
value of all forages exceeded values expected to limit
milk production.
Keywords: dry matter yield, nutritive value, chicory,
plantain, perennial ryegrass, sudan grass, sulla
Influence of pasture renewal, soil factors and climate on black
beetle abundance in Waikato and Bay of Plenty
P. J. GERARD, N.L. BELL, T.M. EDEN, W.M. KING, N. R. MAPP, M.R. PIRIE and G.M RENNIE
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An outbreak of the sporadic pest black beetle caused
major damage on farms throughout Waikato and Bay
of Plenty regions from 2007 to 2010. Two projects
were initiated in these regions to gain an understanding
of the interaction of black beetle with endophyte/
cultivar combinations and pasture renewal strategies.
Monitoring of black beetle populations on the project
farms showed that overall, abundance steadily declined
from 2009 to 2013, possibly due to cool temperatures,
and in the case of Bay of Plenty, high rainfall in
2010. In Waikato, pasture renewal in 2012 had no
significant effect on beetle abundance in the following
year compared to the unrenewed paddocks. Greater
population levels in the Waikato sites were associated
with lower soil pH. El Niño and La Niña weather
events appear to be associated with changes in black
beetle population levels, which may assist prediction of
future outbreaks and damage risk.
Keywords: Heteronychus arator, pasture, La Niña
Innovation and technology uptake on farm
W. J. LISSAMAN, M. CASEY and J.S. ROWARTH
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The belief that the average farmer in New Zealand
is too old to adopt new technologies overlooks the
evidence, and the overseas literature aligning adoption
with education experience and financial security. It also
overlooks the fact that many innovations are developed
on farm by people experienced in what they are doing.
This paper reviews the literature from a wide source
of perspectives synthesising information and allowing
examination of critical success factors (e.g., age,
education, financial background, experience). New
Zealand examples of innovation on farm are described.
The research suggests that farmers adopt technologies
when they can see the outcome in terms of the bottom
line for their farming system. Education, experience
and financial security are all part of the mix that allows
the benefits to be evaluated against the risks. These
farmers have the background to adapt new technologies
to their farming systems, and to develop innovative
approaches to meet new production challenges, whether
environmental, economic or regulatory.
Key words: Adoption, adaptation, end-user, extension
Innovation at Scott Farms, Tirau
IAN SCOTT
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I run a mixed enterprise, dairy, deer and maize growing
farm based on high value Tirau ash soils situated
between Tirau and Matamata. Many neighbouring
farms are being purchased for vegetable cropping as
urban spread in Auckland forces the likes of Balle Bros
and Wilcox & Sons further south. I continue to practice
as a large animal veterinarian primarily serving dairy
farmers, but also meeting quality assurance and animal
welfare needs of the deer industry. After 35 years
working with farmers, I am still amazed by the skill,
inventiveness and sheer creativity demonstrated by so
many of my clients.
Integrating maize and triticale in grass/clover based dairy systems:
examining yields and autumn soil nitrate levels
J.B. PINXTERHUIS, H.C. DE BOER, N.J.M. VAN EEKEREN and M.W.J. STIENEZEN
view more
To establish N-efficient crop rotations with perennial
ryegrass/white clover, maize and triticale, a 9-year field
experiment was executed on an organic experimental
farm in the Netherlands. Crop rotations with different
levels of slurry (dairy effluent from the free-stall barn,
average dry matter content of 7%) application were
tested for dry matter (DM) yield, N yield, soil mineral
N in autumn, soil organic matter and soil organic N.
Maize cropping and slurry application both increased
annual DM yield. However, the second year of grass/
clover following maize, maize itself and slurry
applications each resulted in higher soil mineral N in
autumn, increasing the risk of nitrate leaching losses.
A rotation of 4 years of grass/clover, 2 years of maize
and 1 year of triticale resulted in relatively high average
annual DM production (12 t DM/ha/year) for Dutch
conditions, with a higher potential N leaching loss in
2 out of 7 years.
Keywords: crop rotation, grass clover, maize, triticale,
N efficiency, soil mineral N
Interactions between players in the field of pasture renewal
K. RIJSWIJK
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The Pasture Renewal Leadership Group (PRLG) has
undertaken four surveys among its members, dairy
farmers, seed retailers and contractors to assess the
effectiveness of the PRLG’s communication around
the topic of pasture renewal. This paper reviews these
surveys and focusses on the interactions between the
different respondent groups and the influence of the
interactions on farmers’ pasture renewal practices,
based on the information sources each respondent group
used and the credibility they attribute to them. The main
information sources for farmers are farm consultants and
scientists, whereas the other respondent groups mainly
use their everyday contacts. Perceived credibility of the
information sources by the information users, as well as
the confidence level of the information user in decisionmaking
about pasture renewal, influenced which
information sources were used. However, consistency
and clarity of the information itself remains an issue,
due to competition amongst the information sources
and the increased complexity of the knowledge behind
pasture renewal.
Keywords: pasture renewal, communication,
interaction, information sources, survey
Levy oration
Ideas, innovation and resilience
PAT GARDEN
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I’m honoured and humbled to have been asked to
present the inaugural Levy Oration. Sir Bruce Levy not
only made a huge impact as an evangelist for grassland
farming during his working life but his influence and
legacy is as relevant as ever to the basic tenets of
growing grass in a modern world.
Liveweight gain of lambs grazing three forage rapes which differ in
total dry matter yield
H.G. JUDSON, D.G. FERGUSON, M.K. CUTTS and A.J.E. MOORHEAD
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Three forage rape cultivars (‘Greenland’, ‘Spitfire’
and ‘Winfred’) which differed in height and total dry
matter production were compared in a lamb finishing
system. Groups of lambs were rotationally grazed on
one of three forage rape varieties over a period of 8
weeks in a four replicate trial. Lambs were allocated
2.5 kg dry matter (DM)/head/day in weekly breaks.
Lambs were shifted and weighed weekly. ‘Greenland’
(tall) had a higher DM yield (10 vs 7.6 t DM/ha) and
carried a higher stocking rate (75 vs 56 lambs/ha),
but had a lower utilisation (46 vs 63%) and supported
a lower apparent intake (1.17 vs 1.45 kg DM/h/day)
and lamb growth rate (146 vs 205 g/day) compared
with ‘Winfred’ (short). Fast lamb growth rates were
associated with high intakes of mainly leaf but also
high quality stem. Leaf percentage should be a key
breeding objective for forage rape breeders and farmers
need to consider attributes of forage rape cultivars other
than just total dry matter yield.
Key words Forage rape, lamb, liveweight gain, dry
matter yield, utilisation, quality
Mitigation of ammonia losses from urea applied to a pastoral
system: The effect of nBTPT and timing and amount of irrigation
M. ZAMAN, S. SAGGAR and A.D. STAFFORD
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To investigate the effect of applying urea with or without
the urease inhibitor (UI) N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric
triamide (nBTPT – trade name Agrotain®) and to
assess impact of the amount and timing of irrigation
on subsequent ammonia (NH3) emission, a field trial
was set up on a research farm at Massey University,
Palmerston North, New Zealand in December 2012.
Measurements of the daily NH3 emission showed that
majority of NH3 losses occurred during the first 1–3
days following urea application. Delaying irrigation
for 48 hr post urea application resulted in high average
NH3-N losses, at 23% and 28.3% for urea applied at 30
and 60 kg N ha-1, respectively. However, even when
5 or 10 mm of irrigation was applied 8 hours after
urea application, average NH3 losses were still 11.3%
and 14.4% of the N applied at 30 and 60 kg N ha-1,
respectively. Our results suggest that 5 to 10 mm of
irrigation/rainfall is needed very soon (<8 hr) after urea
application to supress NH3 volatilisation depending on
initial soil moisture contents. If this rainfall/irrigation
is not guaranteed, then NH3 losses associated with
standard urea application can effectively be reduced by
47% using urea treated with nBTPT.
Keywords Agrotain, ammonia losses, irrigation,
nBTPT, urea, volatilisation
No-tillage systems – reviewing the challenge of adoption in relation
to the role of fertiliser placement
P.M.S. LANE and B.E WILLOUGHBY
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The adoption of no-tillage systems by New Zealand
farmers has been slow, but appears to be gaining
momentum driven by economic and soil conservation
advantages compared to crop and pasture establishment
through cultivation. With improvements in technology
and techniques establishment and yields of maize,
brassica and pasture from no-tillage is similar to those
from cultivation. The role of fertiliser placement in crop
establishment by no-tillage and pathways to encourage
adoption is discussed.
Keywords: No-tillage systems, no-tillage, fertiliser,
di-ammonium phosphate, DAP, triple superphosphate,
fertiliser placement
Optimising farm resource allocation to maximise profit using a new
generation integrated whole farm planning model
J. M. RENDEL, A.D. MACKAY, A. MANDERSON and K. O’NEILL
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A new generation integrated whole farm planning
model (“the model”) is introduced. In a departure from
the use of whole farm and average data for decision
making, this model integrates data from multiple land
management units (LMUs) within a farm business and
uses optimisation to identify farm system design to
maximise profit under variable production and market
conditions.
The user supplies pasture growth rates, minimum and
maximum acceptable pasture covers for each LMU,
animal performance, farm costs and market prices.
Additions or constraints can be placed on individual
LMUs. The optimisation routine uses this information
to identify the mix of production enterprises and
management regimes that maximises profit for the
business.
A case study is presented based on a commercial
sheep and beef farm with five distinct LMUs.
Comparisons are made between: treating the farm as
a single LMU and as five LMUs; with current and
optimal farm system.
Keywords: Farm System modelling, linear
programming, optimisation, land management units,
investment
Pasture establishment on non-cultivable hill country
K.N. TOZER, G.B. DOUGLAS, C.A. CAMERON, T.J. FRASER,
R.A. MOSS, G.M. RENNIE, T.L. KNIGHT and P.D. MUIR
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To determine the best method of pasture establishment
on non-cultivable hill country (>20o slope), four
treatments were compared in one year on north and
south aspects at four sites with contrasting climates and
soil types. Sites were located in Waikato (1), Hawke’s
Bay (2) and Canterbury (1). The treatments included
seed mix (grasses, legumes and herbs (GLH); legumes
only (LEG)) and sowing time (spring; autumn). Six
weeks after sowing, seedling establishment, as a
percentage of viable seeds sown, was: i) greater on
south than north aspects for perennial ryegrass (31% vs
18%) and birdsfoot trefoil (5% vs 4%); ii) greater for
total sown species (14% vs 8%), subterranean clover
(7% vs 4%) and red clover (25% vs 14%) in the GLH
than LEG mix, but greater for white clover in the LEG
than GLH mix (17% vs 8%); iii) greater in autumn
than spring for perennial ryegrass (36% vs 13%) and
total sown grasses (22% vs 9%) but greater in spring
than autumn for lotus (6% vs 3%). Plantain established
well in spring in summer-wet environments, while in
summer-dry environments establishment was greater
in autumn. Broadcasting seed on south aspects during
autumn is likely to result in the highest establishment
of sown grasses and legumes, but not necessarily of
herbs. The trials were conducted in an unusually wet
season. Repeating a subset of the treatments at these
sites will provide a greater understanding of responses
to climatic variation.
Keywords: pasture renewal; pasture establishment;
pasture mixtures; oversowing.
Pasture establishment on non-cultivable hill country
K.N. TOZER, G.B. DOUGLAS, C.A. CAMERON, T.J. FRASER,
R.A. MOSS, G.M. RENNIE, T.L. KNIGHT and P.D. MUIR
view more
To determine the best method of pasture establishment
on non-cultivable hill country (>20o slope), four
treatments were compared in one year on north and
south aspects at four sites with contrasting climates and
soil types. Sites were located in Waikato (1), Hawke’s
Bay (2) and Canterbury (1). The treatments included
seed mix (grasses, legumes and herbs (GLH); legumes
only (LEG)) and sowing time (spring; autumn). Six
weeks after sowing, seedling establishment, as a
percentage of viable seeds sown, was: i) greater on
south than north aspects for perennial ryegrass (31% vs
18%) and birdsfoot trefoil (5% vs 4%); ii) greater for
total sown species (14% vs 8%), subterranean clover
(7% vs 4%) and red clover (25% vs 14%) in the GLH
than LEG mix, but greater for white clover in the LEG
than GLH mix (17% vs 8%); iii) greater in autumn
than spring for perennial ryegrass (36% vs 13%) and
total sown grasses (22% vs 9%) but greater in spring
than autumn for lotus (6% vs 3%). Plantain established
well in spring in summer-wet environments, while in
summer-dry environments establishment was greater
in autumn. Broadcasting seed on south aspects during
autumn is likely to result in the highest establishment
of sown grasses and legumes, but not necessarily of
herbs. The trials were conducted in an unusually wet
season. Repeating a subset of the treatments at these
sites will provide a greater understanding of responses
to climatic variation.
Keywords: pasture renewal; pasture establishment;
pasture mixtures; oversowing.
Pasture renewal on Bay of Plenty and Waikato dairy farms: impacts on
pasture production and invertebrate populations post-establishment
K.N. TOZER, G.M. RENNIE, W.M. KING, N. R. MAPP, N.L. BELL, C.A. CAMERON and T.M. EDEN
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The impact of renewal on pasture production was
determined by monitoring renewed and unrenewed
pastures on five farms in each of Bay of Plenty and
Waikato for 3 years, excluding the year after sowing
(establishment). Renewed pastures produced an
additional 1.5 t dry matter (DM)/ha averaged over both
regions in the second year after establishment and 1.9 t
DM/ha in each of the third and fourth years. Renewed
pastures also had greater clover DM content in spring
and summer and lower broadleaf weed DM content in
winter. Perennial ryegrass tiller densities were similar
in renewed and unrenewed pastures in both regions.
There were fewer white-fringed weevil, black beetle
and total nematodes in renewed pastures on at least
one of the sampling times. It was concluded that
higher clover content, fewer weeds, and fewer insect
pests contributed to greater DM production in renewed
pastures.
Keywords: Pasture renewal; dairy pastures; pasture
persistence; DM production; regrassing
President’s address 2013
JACQUELINE ROWARTH
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Security of food supply, sustainability of food
production and safety in food processing – the three Ss
of food – have featured in the news globally over the
last twelve months. New Zealand has not been immune,
and was the focus mid-year. The repercussions are
still being felt. A successful pathway to the future
will include improved understanding of agriculture
and science – which means education at all levels is
required. The role of the New Zealand Grassland
Association continues to be information exchange and
hence education – fuelled by science and tempered by
experience.
Productivity of rotationally grazed simple and diverse pasture
mixtures under irrigation in Canterbury
F. NOBILLY, R.H. BRYANT, B.A McKENZIE and G.R EDWARDS
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Herbage dry matter (DM) production, botanical
composition and nutritive value were compared over 2
years under irrigation and dairy cow grazing for simple
two-species grass (perennial ryegrass or tall fescue)-
white clover pastures and diverse pastures where herbs
(chicory and plantain), legumes (red clover and lucerne)
and prairie grass were added to the simple mixtures.
Averaged over 2 years, annual herbage DM production
was 1.62 t DM/ha greater in diverse (16.77 t DM/
ha) than simple (15.15 t DM/ha) pastures, primarily
reflecting greater DM production in summer. Diverse
pastures had lower metabolisable energy (ME) (12.0 vs
12.2 MJ ME/kg DM) and neutral detergent fibre (301 vs
368 g/kg DM) content than simple pastures, although
the total ME produced per year was greater in diverse
than simple pastures (202 vs 185 GJ ME/ha). Ryegrassbased
pastures had higher annual DM production than
tall fescue-based pastures in the first but not second
year. The results indicate that including additional
legumes and herbs with simple grass-white clover
pastures may increase total DM and ME production of
dairy pastures under irrigation.
Keywords: Lolium perenne L., Festuca arundinacea,
herbs, legumes, pasture mixtures, diversity, nutritive value
Response of simple grass-white clover and multi-species pastures
to gibberellic acid or nitrogen fertiliser in autumn
M. H. VAN ROSSUM, R.H. BRYANT, and G.R. EDWARDS
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Herbage dry matter (DM) production, botanical
composition and nutritive value of pastures were
measured in response to the application of 24 g/
ha gibberellic acid (GA; 60 g ProGibb®/ha) and
50 kg N/ha nitrogen fertiliser (N; 106 kg urea/ha) in
autumn. Responses were compared for simple two
species grass (perennial ryegrass or tall fescue)-white
clover pastures and multi-species pastures where
herbs (chicory and plantain), legumes (red clover and
lucerne) and prairie grass were sown with the simple
mixtures. Four weeks after application, the increase in
DM yield averaged across pasture mixtures relative to
untreated plots was 273, 104, and 493 kg DM/ha for
GA alone, N fertiliser alone, and GA and N combined,
respectively. Application of GA increased the white
clover percentage in all pastures except simple tall
fescue pastures. The percentage of herbs in multispecies
pastures was increased by application of N but
not GA. Crude protein concentration was decreased by
GA application in all pastures except simple ryegrass
pastures. The results from this study show that it is
important to consider the botanical composition of
pastures when determining the effect of GA on DM
yield and nutritive value.
Keywords: crude protein, Cichorium intybus, Festuca
arundinacea, gibberellins, Lolium perenne, Plantago
lanceolata, nutritive value
Robotic urine-patch treatment and effluent application – technology
to support intensification of New Zealand dairy farming while
protecting the environment
G. BATES and B. F. QUIN
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The need to minimise nitrate leaching and gaseous N
losses from dairy farming is increasing; simultaneously
dairy farming is undergoing rapid intensification.
Robotic targeted application of nitrification and/or
urease inhibitors is proposed as a route to addressing the
“urine-patch” issue without risking milk contamination.
This paper demonstrates a new robotic product under
development and scheduled for commercial release for
the 2015/2016 dairy season. The paper then discusses
two developments of the product that will enable (i)
highly-efficient fluidised-N application, and (ii) effluent
application. These new products have the potential to
greatly reduce nitrate leaching and gaseous N losses
from dairy farming.
Keywords: robotic urine-patch treatment, nitrogen
(N) losses, N inhibitors, effluent management, robotic
effluent spreading, robotic fertiliser spreading
Sensible Farming on Sensitive and Steep Land – A Catchment
Management Approach in Tauranga Harbour
D.R. HALL
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Sedimentation of Tauranga Harbour was identified as the
top environment issue in a 2006 environmental report.
Research has indicated that 63.7% of the sediment yield
from the 98 641 hectares of contributing catchments of
the southern harbour was from pasture that covers only
34.7% of the catchment area. Bay of Plenty Regional
Council has developed and implemented a catchment
management framework to work alongside farmers and
the rural community to address the issue. The approach
involved firstly gaining accurate data, including
modelling sediment movement and accurately
“ground-truthing” 2190 km of waterways in 28 subcatchments.
It included data analysis for Land Use
Capability (LUC), erosion risk, land cover, existing
protection status of land, as well as developing an
effective communications plan to engage landowners.
A perception survey was also undertaken to determine
what farmers understood of their environmental
responsibility and what the drivers for change were.
Council now has a much better understanding of land
cover, current land use, the community concerns and
their knowledge of issues in Tauranga Harbour. This
has enabled a more focused catchment management
approach and better use of funds to support riparian
protection and land use change.
Keywords: Catchment, sedimentation, riparian, erosion
The Bay of Plenty; a summary of the physical landscape, economy,
demographics and issues surrounding primary production
SIMON STOKES
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The “Bay of Plenty” was a term coined by Captain
Cook when his ship Endeavour rounded East Cape
on 29 October 1769 and came upon local populations
large and prosperous. It has a uniquely youthful
volcanic landscape, interspersed with twelve iconic
lakes, and several harbours and estuaries, the eastern
boundary being framed by the main axial range of the
North Island. With approximately 71% of the land area
afforested or in indigenous habitat, there is not a huge
amount of land left for agricultural and horticultural
production; this has to compete with changing
community demands, urbanisation and infrastructural
growth, and a rapidly expanding population. This
raises expectations on the primary sectors to manage
their businesses in a way which reduces the effects of
those sectors on the surrounding environment. With
pumice soils dominating, and water quality an issue, the
security and future of the region’s primary producers is
both necessary and problematic.
The impact of farming without nitrogen fertiliser for ten years
on pasture yield and composition, milksolids production and
profitability; a research farmlet comparison
C.B. Glassey, C.G. Roach, J.M. Lee and D.A Clark
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Two experimental farmlets were established in
the 2001/02 season and run continuously to 2010/11,
comparing the impact of two nitrogen (N) fertiliser
systems on milksolids (MS) production, profitability
and the yield and composition of ryegrass-white
clover pastures. Treatments were: 1) No-N. No N
fertiliser applied, stocking rate 2.56 cow equivalents/ha
(including replacements); 2) Control. Average of 181
kg N/ha/year applied as urea, stocking rate 3.06 cows/
ha (replacements grazed off farm). Annual pasture
production was, on average, 2.9 t DM/ha greater on
the Control farmlet compared with the No-N farmlet
(P<0.001). Annual MS/ha was 193 kg/ha greater
(P<0.01) on the Control farmlet. Despite a reduction
of 1.07 kg MS for every kg N not applied, profitability
was very similar for both farmlets in 6 of the 9 years.
Compared with No-N, the profitability of the Control
farmlet improved as milk price increased above $5.10/
kg MS. While the farmlets confirmed that profitable
milk production systems can be achieved without N
fertiliser applications on well-established Waikato
dairy pastures, N fertiliser is useful for increasing
profitability and milk production, particularly when
the ratio between milk price and the cost of fertiliser
is favourable.
Keywords: Nitrogen fertiliser, pasture yield,
milksolids, operating profit.
Understanding the distribution and fate of nitrogen
and phosphorus in OVERSEER®
D.R. SELBIE, N.L. WATKINS, D.M. WHEELER and M.A. SHEPHERD
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OVERSEER® Nutrient Budgets (Overseer) is an
agricultural management support tool that examines the
flow of nutrients in a farming system. There is increasing
pressure from a range of users for transparency of the
way Overseer functions, particularly the modelling
of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loss to water. The
aim of this paper is to provide a conceptual description
of the way Overseer models the distribution and
fate of N and P in a pastoral system, to support user
understanding and correct model use. The core of
Overseer is a nutrient budget, which accounts for the
flow of nutrient into, around and off the farm. The
key strength of Overseer is its ability to model these
nutrient transfers around the farm, identifying how
much, where and when nutrients move. Other parts
of the model then estimate the fate of these nutrients.
Nitrogen and P cycle differently around the farm, which
is reflected in the way they are modelled. This paper is
intended to be a support document for understanding
the way Overseer models N and P, and where more
detailed information is required, it may be found on the
Overseer website (www.overseer.org.nz).
Keywords: Nutrient budget, model, leaching, run-off
Undiagnosed metal phytotoxicity in soils: Measurement of soil pH
micro-variability under Manawatu pastures, and assessment of an
alternative means of amelioration.
P. BISHOP AND B.F. QUIN
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Although not always recognised as such, the major
reason for the recommended application of sufficient
lime to achieve a soil pH of 5.5 or more on New Zealand
pastures is to ameliorate phytotoxic effects of water
soluble cations of aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn) and
iron (Fe). However, evidence that increasing numbers
of farms have sub-optimum soil pH levels suggests that
traditional treatment, viz. infrequent heavy applications
of agricultural lime, is not considered cost-effective
by many farmers, probably due largely to increasing
application costs. Application of the carboxylate copolymer
AlpHa® to eliminate phytotoxic levels of Al, Mn
and Fe was found to be comparable in effectiveness to
typical rates of lime application, but with the advantage
of minimal application cost, as the low application rate
required (2 L/ha) can be incorporated into fertiliser or
(reduced) lime applications. Standard soil testing of
commercial farms involves combining 15–20 soil cores
from a given paddock to determine the “average” pH.
As well as underestimating the mean pH, this method
gives no information regarding micro-variability of soil
pH in the pasture root zone. Over 25% of the pasture
root zone was found to have pH levels 0.3 to 0.6 lower
than the true average, the therefore susceptible to metal
toxicity. Commercial laboratory testing of individual
cores would be uneconomic. The in-field direct
measurement of soil (damp) pH using the antimony
(Sb) electrode was found to be a very convenient and
robust technique for assessing variability. The benefits
of more accurate identification of metal toxicity risk
coupled with the potential of a more cost-effective
method of amelioration are discussed.
Keywords: metal toxicities, Al, Mn, Fe toxicity
treatment, alternatives to liming, acid soils under
pastures, pH variability in pastures, urine patch pH
effects, AlpHa®, carboxylate co-polymers
Using data from large scale farming operations to understand the
importance of feeding the ewe to improve whole farm performance
D.R. STEVENS and G. YOUNG
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The collection and use of data from large scale farming
operations provided significant insights into drivers of
sheep performance. These drivers included minimum
two-tooth liveweight at tupping, ewe condition and
pasture cover at lambing and the importance of weaning
weight on whole farm performance. Using this data to
demonstrate the influence of management decisions
resulted in an increase in average lamb liveweight gain
between birth and weaning of approximately 20 g/day
in Landcorp Farming Ltd East Coast flocks over the 4
years of monitoring. Lambing percentage was harder
to change, though individual farms increased lambing
percentage by up to 35% by concentrating on increasing
feed allocation and maintaining ewe body condition
score during winter. Low liveweight in some two-tooth
ewes was inversely related to the percentage of dries
in a flock and prompted more emphasis on growing
replacement stock. The programme shifted focus from
short-term tactical feeding and management decisions
to long-term strategies such as stock and sales policies
that placed the breeding flock as the major priority.
Keywords: breeding ewes, data, lambing percentage,
lambs, liveweight gain, whole flock analysis.
Why we need to know what and where cows are urinating – a urine
sensor to improve nitrogen models
K. BETTERIDGE, D. A. COSTALL, F.Y. LI, D. LUO and S. GANESH
view more
Urine of grazing livestock is the greatest contributor to
leached nitrogen (N) in our environment. While many
N cycling models have used average urine excretions
as input data, concentration and volume of individual
urination events can vary greatly. Stock camps receive
large amounts of urine and pose a high risk of N
leaching, especially when animals are set stocked over
several days. A new urine sensor is described, along with
the variation in urine characteristics of break-grazed
cows. N leaching was modelled based on sensor data
collection, and paddock-scale estimates were compared
to those based on average urine data. There was a 10%
difference in estimated N leached by two pumice soils,
but both leached 10% less N when varying urine values
were used compared to average urine values. The new
data showed a frequency distribution pattern of urinary
N concentration in urination events that differed to
that estimated using earlier data. Thus, frequency
distribution patterns have a large effect on modelled N
leaching loss and need to be based on extensive data
collection to increase the confidence in improving
estimates of N leaching. Campsites, which occupy
5–15% of a hill country paddock, account for about half
of all excreted urine; their locations can be predicted
for the targeting of N-loss mitigation strategies using a
simple topographic map of the farm.
Keywords: nitrogen leaching, urine volume,
environment, urinary nitrogen concentration
Yield and water use of a ryegrass/white clover sward under different
nitrogen and irrigation regimes
A.D. BLACK and H.M. MURDOCH
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We investigated how N availability affected the wateruse
efficiency (WUE) of a perennial ryegrass/white
clover sward under different soil moisture regimes
at Lincoln. Four combinations of ± N fertiliser and ±
irrigation (I) were applied to plots rotationally grazed
by sheep, and WUE (yield/water used) was measured
from August 2011 to May 2013. The +N swards had a
higher annual WUE than –N swards (27 vs 19 kg DM/
ha/mm) due to greater yields for the same amount of
water used. This was associated with higher N contents
in the +N grass herbage. The N response of WUE was
consistent across soil moisture regimes and for most of
each year. Irrigation did not affect annual WUE because
the +I swards yielded more herbage but used more water
than the –I swards. The results suggest that high WUE
can be achieved by strategic applications of N fertiliser,
use of pure legume swards, and through management
that encourages clover growth in grass/clover swards.
Keywords: dryland, Lolium perenne, Trifolium repens,
water-use efficiency
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