Thank you for the invitation to be with you today and to participate in this symposium. As a recent newcomer to the ranks of hill country farming, I am looking forward to picking up some pointers I can take back to my small team at Mt Alford Station in Mid Canterbury. With academics and commentators speaking out strongly against the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP), central Auckland traffic being brought to a standstill by protests around the signing of TPP on 4 February, global dairy prices slumping, and major daily fluctuations seemingly becoming normal in global stock markets, you could be forgiven for concluding that nothing is rational or normal anymore.
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(263 KB)TThe challenges on farm What are the big issues that will face us in the hill country over the next 3 decades? It is these issues and the resulting pressures that are likely to shape the innovations required to support a robust future for hill country farming. If necessity is the mother of invention, then what are the pressures and hence what will shape the likely innovations that will be necessary for this important sector in the time ahead? Profitability is at the heart, but the pathway to adoption of innovation begins with farmers understanding and being confident to make system changes as well as having the desire to do it. By looking back over the past few decades at the major lift in productivity, especially in sheep, and at some of the innovations that have contributed, we may be better able to look ahead. There are some broad principles that are likely to be important over the next 30 years:
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(255 KB)Introduction This paper is a personal view of the opportunities and challenges that face Māori hill country farms over the next 20 years. This view is based on my observations and experiences working in the Māori agribusiness sector over the last 35 years. Māori agribusiness has come a long way in the last 50 years. The term “sleeping giant” is still relevant today. The last 30 years have seen the major land developments of the 1980s and 1990s consolidate, and many Māori land blocks came back under full Māori control. In the last 15 years there have been some major success stories across the Māori farming sector, highlighted by the revitalisation of the Ahuwhenua Awards competition in 2003.
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(195 KB)Introduction When I was young the hill country was where the store lambs came from. But with the flatter and generally better land being lost to the likes of urban and dairy farming expansion, New Zealand’s hill country is now the key breeding platform, and is increasingly being required to finish stock for the red meat sector – a sector that generates nearly $8 billion/year in export earnings for the country. Hill country farmers, their service providers and local communities face notable challenges including continuing pressure on profitability, rural depopulation and climate change, as well as environmental pressure around the ‘right to farm’ from the greater New Zealand population. However, there are also great success stories in terms of the improvements in productivity and environmental stewardship that have been made in the hill country. The Hill Country Symposium (HCS) will update relevant research and present some of the industry’s successes. However, our main aim is as a group to answer two questions: What does a profitable and resilient future for our hill country farming look like? What do we, collectively
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(153 KB)
Abstract Deer Industry New Zealand established Advance Parties to improve profitability among New Zealand deer farmers. The number of deer farmed in New Zealand has fallen in the past decade and new ways of doing things are needed to ensure farmers are confident in the animal as a profitable part of the pastoral agricultural mix. Advance Parties are a farmer-centric means of encouraging adoption of new practices to improve the profitability of farming deer. Advance Parties are small groups of like-minded farmers focussed on helping each other implement, record and observe changes on their properties, with external assistance when needed. The results of these changes will be disseminated to the wider deer farming community. Deer Industry New Zealand is running 15 Advance Parties as at November 2015, with the aim of running 30 on an ongoing basis. This would involve approximately 300 deer farms. Keywords: Deer Industry New Zealand, Passion2Profit, deer farming practice change
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(412 KB)Abstract The core drivers for why top performing farmers operate the way they do is the importance of both family and the ‘way of life’ that farming provides. While profitability is critical, when it is boiled down, profits allow top performers to provide opportunities for their families, and live the farming ‘way of life’ that appeals so deeply to them. These two factors are then followed by a diverse range of drivers that all form the fabric of farming that drive top performers to get out of bed and push for even greater productivity and profits. Keywords: Performance drivers, way of life, profitability, dynamic challenge, attention to detail, efficiency
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(274 KB)Abstract New Zealand has a long history of Government policy affecting agriculture. Some policy interventions, such as Producer Boards were long-lived, others like Land Development Encouragement Loans and the Supplementary Minimum Price scheme ramped up quickly and were then dismantled. Currently, the National Policy for Freshwater Management and the Emissions Trading Scheme are having mixed effects on hill country farmers. While regulation is often seen by farmers as a negative, environmental regulation has the potential to be used for market advantage. Farmers need to engage in policy and regulation development as they can help avoid unintended consequences. If they do not then they are ceding control of important aspects of their business to others. This paper explores some of the impacts of past and present policy on hill country farming from a farmer’s perspective, and based on 9 years of regular involvement in development and implementation of policy at a local, regional and national level. Keywords: policy, National Policy Statement for Freshwater Management, Emissions Trading Scheme, farmer engagement
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(159 KB)Innovation is critical for maintaining New Zealand’s competitive advantage in agriculture and central to this is farmer learning and practice change. Despite the importance of farmer learning, limited research has been undertaken in New Zealand. In this study, an extension programme was developed based upon educational theory and research and then evaluated over a 3 years to identify the factors that were important for farmer learning and practice change. This paper provides a brief overview of findings of a 3 year interdisciplinary study conducted at Massey University with 23 farmers that investigated the critical factors that support farmers’ learning. The five critical success factors and the seven educational principles identified from this study provide guidelines for how science should interact with farmers to foster effective innovation. These findings are also applicable to other extension approaches such discussion groups, monitor farms and sustainable farming fund initiatives where farmers work with scientists and/or rural professionals. Keywords: farmer learning, extension, practice change, herb pastures, innovation, community of practice
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(223 KB)Abstract Extension successfully creates change when projects are designed to fit the issue, opportunity, or technology to be implemented, the potential users, and the influences external to the farm team. To better understand when and why different approaches to extension succeed this study developed a typology of nine extension approaches. The nine approaches provide a framework to identify the right extension approaches that will drive sustainable productivity improvements for higher onfarm profitability. Factors that need to be understood when deciding which of the extension approaches is best suited to a particular circumstance are: farmers’ awareness of the problem, problem complexity, benefits desired by farmers, compatibility of the new technology with existing farm management, and the ability of the farm team to implement the technology. This paper outlines the 9 extension approaches, and the criteria and process for choosing the appropriate approach for the circumstances. Keywords: extension approaches, technology transfer, co-development
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(219 KB)Abstract Landholders in New Zealand hill country are being challenged in the future to provide the resource for increasing agricultural productivity while balancing social and environmental demands. This will lead to an increasingly complex ecosystem which challenges simple approaches to achieving change on farm. This paper discusses principles such as degree of complexity, systems thinking in farming systems, knowledge, and barriers to decision making and adoption in relation to agricultural production systems. These concepts are often little considered or understood where there is an expectation of uptake of new technologies or an increased rate of practice change. Better understanding and consideration of these concepts could help in the development and design of more effective extension programmes. Keywords: behaviour change, adoption, extension, farming systems, complexity, barriers, knowledge
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(227 KB)Abstract The use of social media is increasing and provides an opportunity compared to ‘traditional’ media. Advances in cloud computing and smartphones have increased the ability to utilise different forms of social interaction. Are farmers and rural businesses realising this opportunity? The engagement of the agricultural community in social media was investigated using an online survey of email recipients of the New Zealand Grassland Association and Beef + Lamb New Zealand to understand their use of computing hardware and social media use. Case studies of recent social media use by Beef + Lamb New Zealand, NZ Agriseeds Ltd and a Deer Industry research uptake project are documented. Responses of 209 survey respondents identified 82% of users with two or more devices, while 100% used email regularly and approximately 95% accessed websites on a daily or weekly basis. Regular Facebook use averaged approximately 50% in the agribusiness and research communities, though this was only 30% in the farming community. Other social media platform use, such as Twitter, YouTube and Linkedin, was lower. Regular mobile apps use was highest in the agribusiness (60%) while this was lower in farming and research communities (30%). The case studies highlighted the development of new social networks using Facebook and Twitter as the underlying opportunity for future engagement in agriculture, while websites, mobile apps and YouTube have the capacity to house resources for interrogative learning and support. Resources need to be allocated to ensure the power of these platforms can be harnessed for commerce and practice change. Keywords: social media, survey, agriculture, interrogative learning, extension, adoption, social networks
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(375 KB)
Abstract Pastoral hill lands deliver a range of contaminants to receiving environments that are of concern to the wider sector stakeholder community: principally sediment, phosphorus, nitrogen and faecal microorganisms. Thermal energy may also be considered a contaminant. Pastoral waterways generally have higher concentrations of suspended sediments, nutrients, faecal micro-organisms, and water temperature relative to forested waterways. These effects can be quantitatively linked to animal stocking rates and management. The large variation in the micro-climates, parent materials, soil types and vegetation resources inherent in hill country is the major driver of spatial and temporal dynamics of contaminant losses. This variation is modified by animal behaviour and physiology. Stores of contaminants in surface or sub-surface flow paths create important temporal lags resulting from land use and management change. The concept of critical source areas has become a key focus for the development of mitigation options. A wide range of biophysical options are now available, covering multiple scales and levels of cost-benefit. The use of farm planning tools is critical in balancing the implementation of mitigations with farm system objectives to improve whole-system sustainability. More research is needed on long-term impacts, given spatial and temporal variation in drivers and known spatial and temporal lag effects. There will be ongoing demand for mitigations that have been developed through co-innovation processes. Keywords: environmental mitigations, erosion, hill country, nutrient loss, pastoral, sediment export
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(298 KB)Abstract In the last decade major reviews on the phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulphur (S) nutrient requirements of clover-based pastures in New Zealand have been completed. This has resulted in adjustments to the P, K and S pasture production functions and some changes to the critical levels for soil tests, and modifications to our interpretation of some soil tests such as Organic S and Reserve K. Applying this new information to New Zealand’s hill country pastoral soils, using case studies, suggests that there is considerable unrealized potential to increase productivity. Keywords: critical levels, economics, fertiliser, pasture, phosphorus, potassium, soil fertility, soil tests, sulphur
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(469 KB)Abstract Aerial topdressing using differential rate application technology improves fertiliser spreading on hill country farms. However, the system’s ability to place fertiliser accurately and precisely within an area needs to be determined. Accuracy was determined by comparing measured and intended application rates. Precision was indicated by the coefficient of variation (CV), which is the standard deviation of the measured application rate over the mean of this rate. Two trials were carried out, where aircraft deposited fertiliser at two application rates and fertiliser was captured using cone-shaped collectors. The average measured application rate for both trials was less than the intended rate. The CV ranged from 35 to 57%, and was lower than CV’s from pilot-operated hopper systems (78%). A one-way analysis of variance test found the difference between measured application rate in the high and low application zone was statistically significant. The results indicate work is required to improve the accuracy and precision of the differential rate system, however, the system shows promise. Keywords: differential rate application technology, aerial spreading, fertiliser placement
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(336 KB)Abstract This review paper discusses aspects of hill country science-based soil fertility management advice given to farmers in the past on the use of fertiliser, principally superphosphate, on hill country farms. This shows that both pasture quantity and quality are improved with the application of the nutrients phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S) in superphosphate and that an unseen benefit of this is the increased food supply to soil biological organisms which also flourish under this management. The large potential for nitrogen (N) fertiliser application is explored and demonstrated. New thinking and technologies are allowing farmers to differentially apply variable rates and types of fertiliser nutrients by air to better match the growth potentials of contrasting hill country zones and so ensure that the investment in fertiliser will give the best financial returns possible. Keywords: soil fertility, hill country, differential application, variable rate
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(249 KB)Summary Our management philosophy is to try and reduce any limiting factors so that the farm, livestock, and the people are able to reach their full sustainable potential. This is done by: • Monitoring fertility, pasture, stock, technologies, and markets and then adjusting management plans accordingly • Matching the most sustainably profitable stock policies to the various land classes • Having a good team of staff and advisors, and ensuring they have the resources and guidance to do their jobs well • Ensuring this business makes reliable profits, some of which are used to improve the property for future generations of owners and also for environmental work, such as protecting bush and streams. As the saying goes ‘You have to be in the black to be green
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(131 KB)Abstract Wide-spaced trees on pastoral land (pasture-tree (PT) systems) are a widespread feature of many farmed landscapes. They offer the potential to increase carbon (C) storage, with implications for reducing atmospheric CO2-C. The effect of PT systems on soil C stocks to 1 m depth was determined for trees aged 14-16 years at densities of 73-111 stems per hectare at four North Island sites (two with poplar, two with alder). Across sites, mean soil C concentration was 1.9-8.5% and mean total soil C mass was 120-455 tonnes C/ha. For alder systems, total C mass of PT was 37% less than adjacent pasture (Open) at Poukawa (120 versus 189 tonnes C/ha), whereas at Ruakura, there was no significant difference between systems. Total C mass of PT systems involving poplar did not vary significantly from adjacent Open systems at Tikokino (328 versus 352 tonnes C/ha) and Woodville (154 versus 202 tonnes C/ha). Soil at 0.3-1.0 m depth comprised up to half of total C mass. Results suggested that poplar and alder had different effects on soil C. Keywords: pastoral hill country, wide-spaced trees, carbon sequestration, greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation
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(382 KB)Abstract It has been more than 10 years since the last comprehensive soil sampling of the long term phosphorus (P) fertiliser and sheep grazing farmlet study established at the AgResearch Ballantrae Hill Country Research Station in 1975. This paper reports the findings from a sampling in October 2014 of the soils in the farmlets that have had no fertiliser since 1980 (LFNF), received 125 kg/ha/year of superphosphate since 1980 (LFLF) or 375 kg/ha/year of superphosphate since 1980 (HFHF). Increases in total P levels in the soil reflect the differences in P inputs between the LFNF, LFLF and HFHF farmlets over the last 40 years. In sharp contrast total sulphur (S) levels in soils have showed little change, despite the large amounts of sulphur applied in superphosphate each year. Exchangeable calcium (Ca) levels have increased on the farmlets receiving fertiliser, reflecting the Ca inputs in superphosphate, while magnesium (Mg) levels are lower in the HFHF farmlet. Potassium has shown little change, with the exception of increases on low slope areas in the HFHF farmlet. Olsen P levels have not changed in the topsoil (0-75 mm) in the HFHF since the 2003 sampling, despite annual P inputs in excess of maintenance. The absence of any change might be explained by the finding that P is accumulating in large amounts in the 75-150 mm soil depths on low slopes in the HFHF farmlet. This finding was unexpected serving to highlight the insights these long-term experimental studies provide to both science and industry. Keywords: Long term fertiliser study, P fertiliser, Olsen P, soil fertility
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(245 KB)Abstract Soil acidity and associated aluminium (Al) toxicity severely limit the establishment and growth of legumes in New Zealand high country pastures. A survey of 13 soils differing in location, soil order, parent material and climate, showed soil pH to range from 4.9 to 6.4 and exchangeable Al (0.02M CaCl2) concentrations of <0.5 to 23.3 mg/kg. At all sites and at varying soil pH above the toxicity threshold for sensitive legumes. Brown soils had the overall highest Al concentrations from 0.8 to 23.3 mg/kg, and volcanic soils the lowest from <0.5 to 6.7 mg/kg. The soil and environmental factors other than soil pH that drive variability in soil exchangeable Al require further investigation. Keywords: soil pH, soil exchangeable aluminium, toxicity, soil type
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(214 KB)Abstract This research investigates soil recovery following landslides at the Whatawhata Research Station 20 km west of Hamilton. Six landslides were studied, ranging in age from pre-1953 to 2014. The landslides were divided into four zones: shear zones (mean of 25% of landslide area), intact accumulation zones (20%), transition zones (40%), and re-deposition zones (15%), along with a control. Soils were well-developed in the control and intact accumulation zones and least recovered in the shear and re-deposition zones. Mean A horizon depths ranged from 2 cm in the shear and re-deposition zones to 7 cm in the transition zone, 17 cm in the intact accumulation zone, and 20 cm in the control. Mean soil carbon contents were lower (P<0.05) in the landslide zones (range of 3.2-5.2%) than in controls (8.2%). Older landslides showed greater recovery, however, the differences between zones within the landslides were greater than the differences between landslides. Keywords: mass movement, soil carbon, hill country
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(440 KB)Key message summary • Farm plans have been an integral part of assisting landowners to manage eroding hill country in the Wellington region • Land Use Capability (LUC) mapping is a key tool in prioritising investment in erosion control and land development programmes • Improving pasture production and management on LUC Class 6 land provides a great opportunity in sustain the productivity of our hill country • Alternatives land uses such as forestry and manuka can provide increased returns from marginal pasture land.
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(196 KB)Abstract New Zealand hill country has a regular requirement for application of phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S) fertilisers usually as superphosphate. There are different requirements for fertiliser within farms with flatter slopes carrying more stock and needing a greater rate than steeper slopes which carry less stock. For the last 70 years aerial application of fertiliser has been mainly uniform with one rate applied over the whole area of a block or farm. As part of Clearview Innovations (PGP), Ballance Agri-Nutrients and Ministry of Primary Industry have developed a system for fixed wing aircraft to apply variable rates of fertiliser during flights across contrasting topographic areas. This system comprises a hydraulically-operated hopper gate linked to a hopper gate controller which in turn is linked to a computer and GPS guidance system, into which a fertiliser application prescription map is inputted. The prescription map uses GPS points to delineate the boundaries between areas that are flat (0-12 degrees), easy (13-25 degrees) or steep (>25 degrees), plus non-productive areas and exclusion zones. Calculated net benefits for the same amount of product applied using either variable rate (VR) or uniform rate application show an advantage of $36 to $166/ha/yr for VR rate application for low and medium fertility farms. Keywords: hill country, phosphorus fertilisers, variable rate, uniform rate
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(287 KB)Abstract Farming intensification has led to a greater use of forage crops to feed cows over winter. This farming practice is now commonly taking place on rolling to steep land in areas where stock are wintered off-farm, such as Southland and South Otago. While the impacts of forage crop grazing on soil physical properties such as compaction, and overland flow of nutrients, sediment and pathogens have been studied, there is a lack of understanding of how this practice influences soil transport. This study used a novel technique to quantify the rate soil is pushed downslope by the hooves of cows while grazing kale, and found a linear relationship between soil transport and slope for slope gradients of less than 0.25. The steep slope of the linear relationship, which defines the soil transport coefficient, indicates rapid downslope soil movement relative to slope gradient. As a consequence, soil erosion on convex sites occurs at rates that likely exceed soil production rates. The formation of stock tracks on slopes greater than 0.25 caused greater uncertainty in soil transport rates, and more research is required to determine the effect of track formation on soil movement. Keywords: winter cropping, brassica, forage crops, erosion, soil creep
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(407 KB)
Abstract New Zealand hill and high country are marginal environments for perennial ryegrass and white clover. Other pasture species, particularly legumes, provide more productive and persistent options for the range of soil climate and topography found in these environments. On cultivatable hill country, lucerne (alfalfa) has been successfully introduced to dryland areas with imported seed increasing five-fold to 210 t per annum over the last decade. This has led to the first release of a New Zealand selected cultivar in 20 years. For subterranean clover reliance on hardseeded Australian cultivars that frequently fail to meet New Zealand biosecurity standards means seed supply is inconsistent. The potential exists to create a niche seed market through selection of locally adapted material grown for seed in New Zealand. Lotus pedunculatus is available commercially but seed often fails to meet certification standards and is predominantly used in forestry. Lotus corniculatus requires agronomic research to overcome some management constraints and the re-establishment of seed supply before it would be a viable option for drier hill country. Seed production for perennial lupins in New Zealand is predominantly for an export ornamental market, with some direct relationships with growers allowing onfarm use. Caucasian clover seed production has ceased in New Zealand and the demand for seed particularly from high country farmers is no longer met. The smallseeded annual balansa clover is being integrated into farm systems and its prolific seeding has enabled some on-farm production of seed for personal use. For it and arrowleaf and Persian clovers, imported cultivars are available and a local market is unlikely to thrive until agronomic and hard seed issues are addressed. Seed supply of forage legumes to satisfy demand for hill country is problematic and will require development of different models including grower co-ops, regional seed retailers, and on-farm production for niche markets. Keywords: alfalfa, Lolium perenne, Lupinus polyphyllus, Medicago sativa, perennial ryegrass, Sitona lepidus, Trifolium ambiguum, Trifolium michelianum, Trifolium repens, Trifolium resupinatum, Trifolium subterraneum, Trifolium tumens, Trifolium vesiculosum, white clover
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(303 KB)Abstract As part of an investigation into the potential of alternative forage species and/or germplasm in New Zealand’s hill country and the traits required for their success, two F2 populations, their original parents, and 34 cultivars of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterranean) were evaluated for hardseededness in Australia. The 34 cultivars were also screened for burr burial strength and flowering time. Microsatellite markers were also used to investigate their association with these traits. The polygenic nature of hardseededness was confirmed and markers associated with this trait were detected and traits for New Zealand’s hill country were identified. Additionally, a core collection of 30 (two cultivars and 28 wild) biserrula (Biserrula pelecinus) accessions was screened for flowering time, growth habit and leaflet size. Also, a subset of five accessions of biserrula exhibited traits that are desirable for hill country, namely, mid-late flowering and adaptation to lowmedium rainfall. Keywords: biserrula, flowering time, hardseededness, hill country, subterranean clover
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(473 KB)Abstract The issues currently limiting the performance of forage plants in hill country are largely unchanged from preceding decades. Low soil pH/high aluminium, low soil phosphate and low soil moisture or summer dry conditions are all ongoing problems. Furthermore, predicted climatic changes in many regions will only intensify soil moisture stress. Forage breeding programmes in the 1970s and 1980s delivered a range of cultivars that improved hill country productivity, but small market size for seed has not been conducive to widespread success of these cultivars or to provision of dedicated plant breeding programmes for these farming systems. Intensification is however driving renewed interest in forages for hill country. A wide range of genetic resources is now available to breeders for better adaptation to these conditions. These include large germplasm collections within existing species, germplasm for interspecific crosses, and potential “new” species which have evolved appropriate adaptations at their point of origin. Advances in genomic technologies offer potential to provide accelerated, more targeted selection of germplasm. This would be particularly valuable for traits that are under complex genetic control, or are more difficult to visually assess, such as physiological and root characteristics. Adjustments in pasture management will be necessary to capture the full potential of new germplasm, while tools to improve pasture establishment and renewal (e.g. new herbicide tolerant brassicas) are also needed to enable its successful introduction. The amalgamation of seed companies into large international enterprises adds potential scale to what has traditionally been a localised issue, making the commercial proposition of developing and marketing such specialised products more attractive. These developments, combined with improved seed distribution technologies, should provide a great opportunity for future hill country farming. Keywords: germplasm, phosphorus, aluminium, drought, genomic selection, cultivars
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(293 KB)Abstract A series of demonstration/proof of concept trials conducted on four sites in northern North Island hill country from 2001 over 3 years, identified practical techniques to establish a high-yielding brassica crop as part of a pasture renewal programme, using a helicopter. Practices similar to no tillage flat-land operations were identified, but they also take into account the risk associated with aerially applying fertiliser, seed and pesticides onto steep hill country. Keywords: hill country, cropping, aerial application
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(993 KB)Abstract The 4 million ha of hill country pastures in New Zealand grow mostly on steep slopes and soils of naturally low soil fertility. Pastures are based on approximately 25 exotic species introduced within the last 130 years after the forest was cleared and burnt. Despite the environmental constraints and naturalised species, hill country is a major contributor to agricultural exports. The landscape and the pastures are spatially diverse, with slope and aspect strongly influencing the abundance and production of pasture species. The number of pasture species present is relatively stable, but the relative abundance of high fertility grass species (e.g. perennial ryegrass, Lolium perenne), low fertility grass species (e.g. browntop, Agrostis capillaris) and legumes (e.g. white clover, Trifolium repens) can be shifted towards high fertility grass species and legumes through the interaction of phosphate fertiliser application and grazing decisions (that is, sheep versus cattle, stocking rate, grazing management). Increased proportions of desirable species and improved soil fertility and structure can support sustainable farming systems. There are challenges such as soil erosion and nutrient loss into waterways, but these are more readily managed when the pastoral system is productive and profitable. Keywords: slope, pasture condition, browntop, perennial ryegrass, soil characteristics
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(558 KB)Abstract Botanical composition of pastures is indicative of their dry matter production and nutritive value and so capacity for animal production. Two previous national pasture surveys were conducted in 1935/1940 and in 1987/1988, and one regional survey in 1967/1968, to assess the state of this resource across all land classes. Among many purposes, results from these surveys were used to assess the outcomes of technological advances such as aerial topdressing and oversowing in hill country from the 1950s onwards, and to record changes in the abundance of particular species such as C4 grasses that could indicate effects of climate change, and identify research needs and opportunities. In the 28 years since the most recent survey, there have been many changes in the farm operating environment. This is particularly so in hill country, where other sectors such as forestry and dairy have encroached on traditional sheep and beef land, and poor profitability has forced variable and often sub-maintenance applications of phosphate (P) and sulphur (S) fertilisers. However, the low use of P and S has been partly offset by increased use of nitrogen (N) fertiliser. The declining number of beef cows, substituted by growing dairy and dairy-beef cattle, and the remarkable increase in the per head productivity of sheep are probably the biggest changes shifting the feed demand profile and the ratio of mature: young livestock. These changes affect pasture utilisation. This paper will consider the possible effects of those changes over the 28 years since the most recent national survey of pasture botanical composition, and the future capacity and resilience of this important resource to cope with continuing farm system change, emerging pressures for productivity growth, and regulatory and compliance requirements. Keywords: hill country pasture, botanical composition, resource status, survey
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(241 KB)Abstract Management of the balance of animal demand and feed supply is the result of a complex set of decisions. These decisions interact and are also variably affected by external drivers, including environmental. In particular, both pasture quantity and quality can be optimised by using appropriate grazing management, including stocking rate, livestock class, etc. In essence: apply sufficient grazing pressure at the appropriate time to maintain pasture covers at a level where the development of grass inflorescences is limited and pasture quality is maximised. The optimal grazing management strategy, however, may be different for each paddock and will change through the season. At a whole-farm scale, grazing management will be a set of trade-offs. Understanding the underlying ecological principles that drive the outcome of these grazing management decisions on pasture performance will have the greatest potential to drive the profitability and sustainability of hill country farms. Keywords: Grazing management, pasture performance, pasture quality, hill country
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(259 KB)Abstract Recently, sheep and beef farms in New Zealand have been out-competed for prime land by dairy and horticulture farming. This means that industry targets to increase sheep and beef production have to be achieved on farms with constraints on pasture production. They are increasingly restricted to hilly and other locations with variable climates and soils, and landscape constraints on farming practices. These challenges lead to the formation of two on farm projects within the Beef + Lamb New Zealand Demonstration Farm programme to improve production from permanent pastures on sheep and beef farms. The first of these was a 4 year evaluation at Whangara Farms North of Gisborne looking at improving forage supply on both noncultivatable hill and flat to easy country through spraying out existing vegetation and oversowing or direct-drilling with white clover and plantain. The second project at Aria in the King Country concentrated on improving the forage quality and quantity at critical times of the year. Clovers and plantain were established through cultivation. Both projects showed that forage and animal production increased after the introduction of clovers and plantain. However, plantain at Whangara did not persist beyond the fourth year from sowing. Poor white clover establishment at Aria resulted in substituting red and white clover for plantain from the second year with improved forage and animal performance. At both sites the costs associated with introducing new forages was repaid within the first 2 years. Keywords: hill country development, forage species, forage quality, whole farm systems
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(222 KB)Abstract The effect of litter (dead vegetation) on establishment of an autumn-sown grass-legume-herb mix was investigated in non-cultivable hill country in Waikato (2013) and in Canterbury (2013, 2014, 2015). In Waikato, increasing litter height increased establishment of sown species by over 3-fold when comparing establishment from herbicide-treated swards with 7 cm or 0 cm (bare ground) of litter (660 versus 190 seedlings/m2). Only perennial ryegrass and white clover established of the seven oversown species in Waikato and none established in Canterbury. In Canterbury, soil surface temperatures were reduced and soil moisture was greater under 7 cm than 0 cm of litter, resulting in a 20% and 50% increase in average soil moisture content on the north and south aspects, respectively. It was concluded that litter enhanced establishment of perennial ryegrass and white clover in Waikato but the ameliorating effect of litter on the soil micro-climate was insufficient to enhance establishment in Canterbury. Keywords: oversowing, pasture establishment, pasture species
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(515 KB)Abstract Hill country has a vast array of microsites that may influence the success and uniformity of establishment of oversown pasture species and their persistence. In spring 2014, studies were conducted at Woodville (southern Hawke’s Bay; summer-wet) and Cheviot (North Canterbury; summer-dry) to determine the effect of gentle (14-21o) and steep (32-40o) slopes on the presence and contribution to sward dry matter (DM) of oversown species in rotationally grazed swards aged 30 or 36 months. Gentle slopes had greater soil water content (29 versus 25%) and Olsen P (34 versus 26 μg/ ml) than nearby steep slopes. Perennial ryegrass (94 versus 80%) and phalaris (6 versus 2%) were present in a greater proportion of plots on gentle than on steep slopes, respectively, whereas subterranean clover had a greater presence on steep than on gentle slopes (6 versus 1%). Perennial ryegrass comprised a higher percentage of DM in swards on gentle than on steep slopes (27 versus 11%). The percentage of DM contributed by other individual species did not differ significantly between slope classes. The persistence of most sown species was unaffected by slope; microsite variation was not a major influence on species persistence. Keywords: hill country, microsites, pasture species, plant-microsite matches
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(266 KB)Abstract Steep, non-cultivable hill country below 1000 m comprises about 40% of New Zealand’s land surface and is known as “hill country”. It is used predominantly for mixed livestock farming, and makes a large contribution to the national economy. Recently there has been renewed interest by industry and government in germplasm introduction through pasture establishment to increase forage supply in these difficult environments. In this review, establishment is defined as development of a sown pasture species to a stage where it is able to reseed. The aim of this review was to determine the effect of key factors associated with pre-sowing management, sowing, and post-sowing management on establishment, including: site selection, herbicides, the role of litter, grazing management, burning, weed and pest control, fallow, fertiliser, species selection, seed quality, sowing time, sowing method, sowing rate, seed inoculation, coating and pelleting, natural reseeding and dissemination of seeds by animals. Over 120 studies were reviewed. A secondary aim was to highlight directions for future research. Keywords: establishment success, sowing, pasture renewal, oversowing
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(271 KB)Abstract In response to the need to find better adapted and more persistent perennial pasture plants for the dryland pastures in the cool-temperate low to medium rainfall (500-700 mm) regions, over 1000 accessions representing 24 species of perennial legumes and 64 species of perennial grasses, were introduced, characterised and evaluated for production and persistence under sheep grazing at sites throughout Tasmania. The work has identified four alternative legume species in Talish Clover (Trifolium tumens). Caucasian Clover (T. ambiguum), Stoloniferous Red Clover (T. pratense var. stoloniferum), Lucerne x Yellow Lucerne Hybrid (Medicago sativa x M.sativa subsp. falcata); and two grass species in Coloured Brome (Bromus coloratus) and Hispanic Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata var hispanica). Keywords: persistence, perennial grass, perennial legume
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(205 KB)
Abstract This paper reviews current production trends for sheep and beef cattle production in New Zealand and gives some insight into the opportunities for improvement. The New Zealand climate favours pasture growth and this is the key to sheep and beef cattle production with over 95% of the diet being grazed pasture or crop. Exports are the focus of the industry with 92% of sheep meat and 82% of beef exported. There has been a 72% increase in sheep meat production since 1990, but there still remains opportunity for further increases through breeding sheep at an earlier age, increasing the weight of lambs weaned per ewe per year, increased efficiency of breeding cows and utilisation of calves from the dairy industry for beef production. Keywords: Sheep meat, beef cattle, pasture, intensification, environment
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(224 KB)Abstract On East Coast hill country, climate change and variable pasture growth mean that there is an opportunity for a more flexible cattle system than the traditional beef cow. Cull dairy cows were purchased in autumn/winter across 3 years and several properties and used to clean up low quality winter feed (8.3 MJME/kg DM; crude protein content, 10.7%). In spite of the low quality feed on offer, winter liveweight gains averaged 238 g/day. Cows were set stocked over spring and growth rates averaged 749 g/day. Cows were slaughtered/sold when the spring/summer “clean-up” had been completed. Across three quite different years, cows were typically farmed for 34 weeks, put on an average of 115.3 kg and had estimated returns of 14.1 c/kg DM consumed. Variation in purchase price, weight gain and timing of slaughter resulted in returns ranging from 8.7 to 28.1 cents/kg DM consumed. These calculated returns do not include the effects of removing low quality feed on other farm enterprises. Keywords: cull dairy cows, pasture management, flexibility, gross margin, East Coast dryland, hill country
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(188 KB)Abstract The impact of using high genetic merit beef bulls in a dairy beef supply chain was compared to using unrecorded beef bulls. Dairy cows were inseminated with Ezicalve Hereford semen (high genetic merit for calving ease and growth), followed by natural mating with Ezicalve and unrecorded Hereford bulls. The resulting 186 progeny were monitored from birth to 2 years old. Ezicalve sired calves required no calving assistance and averaged 4 kg lighter at birth than those from unrecorded sires (P<0.01), but took no longer to reach 100 kg liveweight. Liveweight gain during finishing was similar across sire types, but calves sired by artificial breeding were born an average of 5 weeks earlier than naturally sired calves and hence, averaged 20 to 35 kg heavier at any given date (P<0.001). There were also differences amongst Ezicalve sires in the liveweight gain of their progeny during finishing, generally reflecting their breeding values. Keywords: birth weight, calving ease, dairy beef, liveweight gain
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(179 KB)Abstract The monitoring of a high fecundity ewe flock in the Te Anau basin demonstrates the process of improved feeding to improve lamb survival and growth to weaning. Feed budgeting was changed from traditional to tailored feed requirements based on measured ewe liveweight with wastage of 15% factored in. Feed allocation was changed from monthly to weekly increases during late pregnancy, and set stocking was delayed until the planned start of lambing. This increased late pregnancy feed allocation from 99 kg DM/ewe to 128 and 144 kg DM/ewe for twin and triplet bearing ewes, respectively. Ewe body condition score was maintained at between 3 and 3.5, with condition score loss between scanning and lambing being reduced to zero. Lamb survival and lamb liveweight gain to weaning increased in both twin and triplet bearing ewes. Pregnancy scanning increased from 200 to 222 lambs per 100 ewes, between 2007 and 2012, while lambing percentage (lambs weaned/ ewe mated) rose from 132% to 165%, with more ewes rearing lambs and rearing multiples. Lamb wastage declined from 37% in 2007 and 2008, to 25% in 2011 and 2012, though scanning percentage rose by 20%. Lamb weights increased from 27.5 to 36 kg/lamb at 100 days of age. The increase in the liveweight of lambs and ewes at weaning reduced the calculated feed requirements over summer and autumn, potentially releasing 70 to 110 kg DM/ewe to provide feed to meet the extra winter feed requirements. Keywords: ewe body condition score, feed allocation, lamb survival, lamb weaning weight
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(359 KB)Abstract New developments in the understanding of early life nutrition and whole of life performance offer opportunities for changing livestock performance in the future. How should hill country farmers use supplements and tactical nutritional additions to turn these insights into future benefits for sheep production? Opportunities may exist in adopting new forage species, and mixes of forage species, supplementary feeds and/ or functional supplements to enhance the performance of both the ewe and the lamb in late gestation and early lactation. The potential and problems of adding these as options into our pasture feeding system to more targeted feeding approaches are explored. Keywords: sheep, nutrition, forage
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(210 KB)
Abstract Livestock graze hill country regions worldwide where grassland biomass or structure is important both economically as forage and enviromentally as habitat for wildlife. Manual measurements of biomass in remote and expansive hill country landscapes are time consuming, expensive, and difficult to estimate due to spatiotemporal variability. Pasture areas where livestock utilisation or grassland biomass is exceptionally high or low could be mapped within a topographic framework. A model was developed that integrates several data sources (elevation, spectra and field data) to estimate hill-country biomass. Topographic data were modelled and used to classify biomass, which ranged from low at summits (1493 kg/ha) to high at toe-slopes (2876 kg/ha). These estimates were compared with the current plant height-based model, which ranged from low (2014 kg/ ha) to high (3032 kg/ha). This paper demonstrates how expansive, heterogeneous grassland landscapes can be assessed seasonally using topographic markers within an integrated spatial data framework. Keywords: Remote sensing, DEM, structure, Landsat 8, forage utilisation, graziers
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(911 KB)The future of hill country farmers depends on constructive engagements with international consumers and domestic values and politics. Antifragility, being at worst unharmed by or benefiting from stresses or shocks, involves both reducing system downside and maximising the upside potential. Antifragility is enhanced by farmers selecting partners with which they align in transparent relationships. Farmers should consider integration or collaboration rather than selfsufficiency. Maintaining an element of flexibility within the farm system is also essential. In addressing the market it is not appropriate to focus on the average consumer. New Zealand producers should target those who care about what is good for them with what is good for the world and good quality; listen to them and deliver what they want. Delivering on what is wanted requires farmers to “farm like they are watching you”. They are. Farmers and companies need to be able to verify what they claim and celebrate an honest story. Keywords: antifragility, consumers, flexibility, honesty, quality, transparency Key messages • Establish aligned, transparent partnerships
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(192 KB)Abstract FarmIQ Systems Limited was established as a Primary Growth Partnership (PGP) between the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI), the meat processor Silver Fern Farms and Landcorp Farming Limited. FarmIQ aims to create a truly integrated value and information chain for red meat from product back to farm. The major output of this partnership is the FarmIQ System ‒ farm management software developed in New Zealand for New Zealand farmers. Hill country farmers have historically been at a disadvantage compared to their lowland counterparts in terms of the ease of quantifying farm performance. The FarmIQ System is a cloudbased tool that addresses these challenges of scale and isolation. It allows all types of red meat farmers to plan, communicate, record, analyse and report information about land, feed and animals easily and accurately. Keywords: FarmIQ System, integration, better decisions
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(191 KB)A review of the literature accessed 234 papers that referenced farm or farming systems research in New Zealand hill country. These were categorised into resource allocation/productivity, modelling, farm studies and sociology. Sociology was further categorised into social, cultural, resilience, policy and regulation, and system behaviour and change. Farming systems research developed over the 5 decades studied from 9 papers in 1960-1975, to a peak of 60 papers during the 1986-1995 decade. The number of papers accessed during the latest decade, 2006-2015, was 57. The focus of research has changed significantly from an initial emphasis on biophysical processes and productivity, peaking in the 1976-1985 decade and then tapering off. This provided data for the development of models that could generate many more comparisons at lower cost. Modelling of the biophysical farm and economic outcomes has been steady through the decades from 1986 to present. The impacts of policy and regulation have featured strongly in the 1986-1995 decade after agricultural deregulation, and again in the 2006-2015 decade as consumer and societal concerns about the environment have emerged. Resilience of the farming system, encompassing production, economic, social and environmental trade-offs, has emerged as a topic being most prevalent in the most recent decade from 2006-2015. The discipline of farm systems research has also matured over this time as a greater range of research techniques, over a wider range of subject matter have been applied. An evolution of the discipline has also seen the integration of the principles of complex adaptive systems into the work. Keywords: cultural, economic, environmental, farm systems, modelling, policy, production, regulation, resilience, social
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(467 KB)Abstract High UMF® (unique manuka factor) manuka honey is in demand because of its strong anti-bacterial properties. However, production is limited and variable; establishing manuka plantations using seedlings grown from seed sourced from areas producing high quality honey is a potential solution. This study compared establishment, growth and nectar dihydroxyacetone content of four manuka provenances (geographically localised varieties) and indigenous manuka at Maxwell and Tutira. Survival was >90% in most provenances. Normalised (80 oBx) nectar dihydroxyacetone content in plantation manuka was generally higher than the indigenous. At Maxwell provenances A (7757 mg/ kg) and C (10 561 mg/kg) had significantly higher normalised dihydroxyacetone than indigenous manuka (4173 mg/kg) and at Tutira provenance D (12 157 mg/ kg) was significantly higher than indigenous (5111 mg/ kg). The results confirm the potential to produce high UMF® honey from manuka plantations. Keywords: manuka, nectar, dihydroxyacetone, sugar, provenances
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(248 KB)Abstract Lorne Peak Station, near Garston in Northern Southland is a 5650 ha station, which until recently, has been run as an extensive store sheep and beef property. Major constraints for this hill country property, like many others in the region, are long winters with occasional snowfall, low pasture growth rates, dry summers, unpredictable autumns and limited cash flow to develop and improve the land. The intensification of New Zealand’s hill country farms is a critical aspect in ensuring financial viability. Since 2009, Lorne Peak has undergone a rigorous intensification program, initially aided by income produced from wintering dairy cows on the property. With careful selection of crops and pastures, farm profitability has increased, through selection of different stock breeds/classes and high utilisation of feed supply over the year. FARMAX® modelling software has been used retrospectively to analyse these changes, and compare it with the current scenario. The analysis clearly shows that the use of lucerne for grazing, fodder beet for beef production, subdivision and increasing soil fertility have been real game changers for Lorne Peak. A 292% increase in farm profit before tax is testament to this achievement. However, an increase of 26% for total farm working expenses, highlights the need for investment to be planned to build resilience into the farming operation. Keywords: hill country, intensification, dryland, lucerne, fodder beet, sheep, beef, FARMAX®, profitability
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(271 KB)Summary StockCARE has become recognised as a programme that can add value to sheep and beef farm businesses. The recognition is most likely built on some of the key features and benefits: • A systems based programme which has been proven to add value • Monitoring and benchmarking are the platform, but the intensity of the collection, interpretation and utilisation of information related to key drivers of every production system, is unique • StockCARE has a proven framework for a disciplined approach to the collection and analysis of production information. • The initial emphasis is on identifying, understanding and defining the factors that may limit performance, before solutions are considered • Farmers are encouraged to create a strong business team and develop strong relationships with people such as bankers, agronomists, fertiliser representatives and stock agents • StockCARE is about helping farmers optimise their business performance because not every farmer can be the “best” • StockCARE is long term, with on-going support for continuous improvement.
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(401 KB)
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